Research

INTRODUCTION

Ecosystem conservation, encompassing the protection and maintenance of the delicate balance within ecosystems through comprehensive strategies (Keith et al. 2022), represents the primary goal of protected areas (PAs) worldwide and serves as the foundation for the sustainability of social-ecological systems within PAs (Ostrom 2009, Ghoddousi et al. 2018). The success of ecosystem conservation partly depends on the ecological behaviors of residents within PAs, behaviors that are significantly influenced by the degree of cooperation between residents and PA management (Ren et al. 2021). The overarching aim of this collaborative effort is to preserve ecosystem integrity within PAs, while also addressing the socioeconomic needs and goals of local communities (Di Franco et al. 2020, Andrade et al. 2022). This cooperative approach may take various forms, such as the co-management of PAs or the inclusion of local residents in decision-making processes relevant to these areas. To facilitate effective collaboration, it is imperative for PA managers to develop and enforce comprehensive policy and legal frameworks that support community engagement in PA governance (Wu et al. 2022). This collaborative endeavor would require local residents to comply with PA regulations and management directives (e.g., no illegal wildlife hunting within PAs, no deforestation; Soliku and Schraml 2018, Diggon et al. 2021); with managers responding accordingly by offering economic (e.g., bonuses or compensation) and social benefits (e.g., awarding honorary titles) to the local communities. These actions are also dependent on the PA agency’s protocols and policies, as well as on the influence of external political and conservation entities.

Nevertheless, in practice, conflicts between local residents and PA managers are commonly observed in PAs where tourism has developed (Lee 2019), especially when residents perceive the benefits gained from tourism as insufficient (e.g., obtaining a limited portion of tourism revenue; Chen 2020). Effective channeling of residents’ conflicting emotions through social safety valves, for instance, non-governmental organizations, facilitates the release of hostility and dissatisfaction. This mechanism plays a pivotal role in upholding the integrity of the social structure (Coser 1956, Jia et al. 2021). In contrast, the lack of adequate outlets for expressing discontent, coupled with the active or passive suppression of conflicting emotions, poses a risk of accumulating tensions that may result in implicit conflicts within the societal framework (Pondy 1992).

Implicit conflict refers to the intentions of conflict that have not been explicitly expressed through direct interactions with conflicting parties (Robbins and Sun 1997). These conflicts are latent and imperceptible because one party does not openly express their dissatisfaction, making them easily overlooked compared to explicit conflicts. Both implicit and explicit conflicts can lead to negative attitudes and behaviors of individuals toward PA managers, hindering the promotion of projects and sustainable development policies within PAs (Soliku and Schraml 2018, Estifanos et al. 2020, Ma et al. 2022, Zhu et al. 2022). Existing studies have explored the adverse impacts of implicit conflicts on tourist reception and facility construction (Carius and Job 2019, Lee 2019, Wang 2021). For example, Wang (2021) found that in Zhaoxing village, tourists were met with indifference by local residents, and some tourism facilities were damaged because of implicit conflicts between residents and the local government. Lee (2019) observed that tourism facility projects in Pyeongchang Mitan-myeon Maha-ri were suspended following residents’ protests. These conflicts resulted in a degradation of tourism products and service quality (Yang et al. 2013). However, minimal attention has been paid to the implications of such conflicts on ecosystem conservation.

The frequent interactions between local residents and PAs during daily activities (e.g., gathering natural resources) raise the question of whether their dissatisfaction with PA managers might be transferred to the ecosystem (Zhang 2018). Following the displaced aggression and routine activity theory, when local residents cannot directly express their dissatisfaction toward the source of provocation, this discontent may be redirected toward ecosystem elements, leading to ecological misbehavior such as destroying ecosystems, over-exploitation, not participating in or being indifferent to ecological protection (Cohen and Felson 1979, Pedersen et al. 2008, Corcoran et al. 2016). Ecological misbehavior may occur in the daily lives of local residents, making it difficult to regulate. This presents significant challenges for management departments in implementing ecological protection measures, further exacerbating the pressure on the ecosystem (Soliku and Schraml 2018, Maxwell et al. 2020). Ecological misbehavior may also be influenced by livelihood strategies; residents who rely on the local ecosystem for their livelihood have more opportunities to damage the ecosystem (Peng et al. 2020, Zhang et al. 2022). However, the influence of implicit conflicts on ecological misbehavior and the social mechanisms through which these conflicts are carried out requires further theoretical elucidation and empirical validation.

This research adopts an approach of theory construction followed by case validation. Initially introducing an innovative theoretical framework, cases that correspond with the theoretical inquiries are then chosen for validation. This research proposes the IWE-S framework to explain how implicit conflicts between local residents and managers affect ecological misbehavior of residents. The IWE-S framework clarifies the relationships among implicit conflicts (I), withdrawal intentions (W), ecological misbehavior (E), and the livelihood strategies (S) of residents. The validity and generalizability of the IWE-S framework were verified through three empirical studies involving multiple respondents collected from Patatso National Park, China. Partial least squares-structural equation modelling (PLS-SEM) was employed to test the proposed hypotheses in the three studies. Study 1 examined the impact of implicit conflicts on ecological misbehavior, Study 2 explored the mediating effect of withdrawal intentions, and Study 3 focused on the moderating role of livelihood strategies. The findings of this research have theoretical and managerial implications for improving PA management.

HYPOTHESIS DEVELOPMENT

Main conceptions

Implicit conflict

This research distinguished between implicit and explicit (or manifested) conflicts. Explicit conflicts refer to direct confrontation between conflicting parties, wherein the negative attitude and behavior of one party are apparent to the other (Yusran et al. 2017, Krul et al. 2021). In contrast, implicit conflicts occur when a party is unable to express dissatisfaction explicitly. In this research, implicit conflict has been defined as “an opposing emotion, attitude, or behavior of local residents toward PA management that is not overtly and directly expressed to PA managers.”

The intensity of implicit conflict is reflected in two dimensions: dissatisfaction and a sense of self-efficacy in expressing dissatisfaction directly and explicitly. High implicit conflicts are identified only when both dimensions register strongly. Merely experiencing high dissatisfaction does not automatically equate to a high level of implicit conflict, as the potential for conflict can be openly addressed through social safety valves or may emerge as explicit conflict (Hanaček et al. 2021). For instance, the Chatthin Wildlife Sanctuary in Myanmar has instituted annual meetings that enable local residents to present their views and complaints about management practices (Allendorf et al. 2017). In Colombia, legislation has been enacted in certain PAs to establish formal avenues for residents to communicate their concerns (De Pourcq et al. 2015). Nevertheless, when residents experience significant dissatisfaction coupled with a perceived inability to directly and explicitly express their concerns, they tend to possess high implicit conflicts. This perception of low self-efficacy may stem from both institutional and cultural dimensions. Institutionally, the absence of formally recognized social safety valves may lead residents to view the avenues available for dialoguing with management as ineffective (Maczka et al. 2021). Culturally, values such as forbearance, guanxi (relationships), and a collective consciousness, which are entrenched in traditional Chinese culture, might discourage individuals from openly expressing discontent and engaging in direct interactions in the face of dissatisfaction (Zhang and Zhang 2014, Ding et al. 2017).

Ecological misbehavior

In contrast to ecological behavior, ecological misbehavior is conceptualized as disturbing, contaminating, and consumptive activities with little environmental responsibility, such as the expansion of agriculture and the unsustainable harvesting of wild plants and animals (Ren et al. 2021). In this research, ecological misbehavior of residents is characterized by a disregard for environmental commitments and responsibilities (e.g., deliberate destruction or excessive exploitation of natural resources; Zhang 2018). Ecological misbehavior adversely affects the health of ecosystems, leading to biodiversity loss, soil desertification, the accumulation of toxic chemicals, and the deterioration of water quality (Wang et al. 2020). Because local residents engage in frequent and difficult-to-monitor interactions with ecosystems, their ecological misbehavior can significantly exacerbate pressures on ecosystem conservation (Than et al. 2022).

Previous literature has examined various factors contributing to the ecological misbehavior of local residents. Lin and Lee (2022) suggested that socio-cultural perceptions, environmental perceptions, and life satisfaction perceptions may influence the ecological (mis)behavior of local residents. Zuo et al. (2023) identified high regional residential mobility as a factor promoting ecological misbehavior among residents. Ma et al. (2022) revealed the influence of publicity and education on the ecological (mis)behavior of local residents. Despite these insights, existing research has ignored the potential effects of interactions with managers and social conflicts on residents’ ecological (mis)behavior.

Withdrawal intention

The withdrawal intention of local residents in this research was derived from the concept of work withdrawal in organizational research (Jo and Lee 2022). Work withdrawal is characterized as the behavior employed by dissatisfied individuals to circumvent or minimize the costs (e.g., time and effort) associated with fulfilling their specific obligations to the organization while retaining their memberships within the organization and their respective work roles (Hanisch and Hulin 1990). In PAs, collaborative management partnerships typically materialize through contractual agreements between PA managers and local residents. These agreements obligate the latter to commit to environmental responsibilities (Diggon et al. 2021). This form is also emphasized in Chinese national park management policies (General Office of the CPC Central Committee and General Office of the State Council 2017). When local residents perceive dissatisfaction in their collaboration with managers, for instance, because of inadequate compensation, they are likely to exhibit a heightened inclination to eschew their environmental commitments and responsibilities. This avoidance behavior is referred to as withdrawal intention.

Livelihood strategies

Livelihood strategies are defined as the composition of activities that generate the means for household survival (Ellis 2000). This research classified livelihood strategies into inner and outer strategies. Inner livelihood strategies encompass income-generating activities that are conducted within the traditional living and production domains of the inhabitants, including farming, herding, and relying on community compensation and income derived from the transfer of land contract rights. Outer livelihood strategies refer to the acquisition of income through activities that transpire outside the traditional living and production zones of the inhabitants, such as employment in urban areas or industrial sectors (Zhang et al. 2022).

Residents living within PAs often depend on farming or herding for their income, activities that are intrinsically linked to the local ecosystem (Peng et al. 2020). Alternatively, some residents may migrate from their traditional living areas in pursuit of higher incomes, remitting their earnings to family members remaining within PAs (Brodbeck et al. 2018). This suggests that the attitudes and behaviors of local residents toward PA management and ecosystems are likely influenced by their chosen livelihood strategies (Bruno et al. 2021, Zhang et al. 2022). Residents engaging in livelihood strategies that exploit local resources may exhibit a heightened sensitivity to PA management policies (Gonçalves et al. 2022). For example, PA management policies prohibiting the grazing of grasslands directly impact the herding practices of local livestock herders (Soofi et al. 2018). Such policies can precipitate increased withdrawal behaviors among these individuals, especially in the face of implicit conflicts with PA management. Therefore, residents whose livelihoods are closely tied to local land resources may adopt differing attitudes and approaches to the ecosystem compared to their counterparts who are less dependent on these local resources (Zhang et al. 2022). Consequently, livelihood strategies based on local resources are potentially more susceptible to the influences of management policies, significantly affecting the attitudes and behaviors of the local residents involved.

Relationships among main conceptions

Implicit conflict and ecological misbehavior

Individuals may experience dissatisfaction or frustration because of mistreatment or neglect by others, yet refrain from directly confronting the source of the antecedent provocation. Consequently, they may redirect their aggression toward an alternate target, a phenomenon widely recognized as “Kicking the dog effect– or displaced aggression (Pedersen et al. 2008). Conceptually, displaced aggression involves aggressing against a substitute target: individuals harbor an impulse to retaliate against their provocateur but instead lash out at another party (Marcus-Newhall et al. 2000). Miller (1941) identified several prerequisites for displaced aggression: (a) the provocateur is inaccessible; (b) the source of frustration is intangible (e.g., bad weather or a foul odor); and (c) there is a fear of retaliation or punishment from the provocateur, which may hold a position of authority or significant power. Under these circumstances, individuals often suppress direct aggression, redirecting it instead toward less powerful or more accessible targets.

The occurrence of displaced aggression within a specific space-time context can be elucidated by the routine activity theory (Corcoran et al. 2016). This theory posits that displaced aggression arises from the convergence, in both space and time, of a potential aggressor, a suitable target, and the absence of a capable guardian to deter the aggression (Cohen and Felson 1979). A suitable target is typically perceived as less powerful or more accessible, examples of which include gentle animals and environments (Marcus-Newhall et al. 2000). Consequently, ecosystems and environmental elements are at risk of damage in scenarios where supervision is lacking or insufficient.

Because of institutional and cultural factors, the dissatisfaction of local residents in PAs toward managers is sometimes not articulated explicitly, particularly within cultures that emphasize collectivism, as is exemplified by China (Zhang and Zhang 2014, Ding et al. 2017). This unexpressed dissatisfaction may accumulate, giving rise to increasing levels of implicit conflict. Residents frequently interact with the local ecosystem during their routine activities, often in contexts where supervision is inadequate. Ecosystems are typically perceived by individuals as less powerful, owing to the absence of immediate feedback following aggressive behaviors. Contrary to human targets, where aggression usually provokes verbal or physical retaliation, aggressive actions against ecosystems, such as littering or deforestation, rarely provoke an immediate, antagonistic response. Consequently, the unaddressed dissatisfaction of local residents with PA managers may be redirected toward the ecosystem, manifesting as ecological misbehavior such as deforestation and hunting. Thus, we propose the following research hypothesis:

H1: Implicit conflicts have a positive effect on ecological misbehavior.

Implicit conflict and withdrawal intention

Implicit conflicts may influence the intention to withdraw from commitments. Drawing on the theory of emotional labor and conservation of resources (Hobfoll 1989), it is posited that individuals are required to invest additional emotional labor when they are unable to vocalize their dissatisfaction stemming from the loss of resources. This increased investment in emotional labor can escalate one’s propensity to disengage from commitments (Deery et al. 2002, Chong et al. 2020). In the context of this research, insufficient compensation was perceived as a loss of resources by the local residents. Concealing their dissatisfaction with this inadequate compensation necessitates significant emotional labor on the part of these local residents. The magnitude of implicit conflicts directly correlates with the amount of emotional labor required, potentially leading to emotional exhaustion (Deery et al. 2002). Elevated implicit conflicts thus increase the emotional labor burden on residents, culminating in emotional exhaustion. Furthermore, when residents enter into environmental protection agreements with managers, an increase in implicit conflicts may intensify their inclination to withdraw from these agreements (Blau 1998). As a result, a higher degree of implicit conflict may enhance residents’ tendencies to shirk environmental responsibilities. Thus, we hypothesize the following:

H2a: Implicit conflicts have a positive effect on withdrawal intention.

Mediating role of withdrawal intention

Under the influence of implicit conflicts, residents are likely to exhibit an increased willingness to withdraw from environmental commitments, potentially leading to ecological misbehavior (Davis et al. 2011). The existing literature has elucidated the amplifying effect of withdrawal intentions on the deliberate contravention of organizational norms and values (Lin and Johnson 2018). In many PAs, local residents, particularly those residing within these areas, have entered into agreements with management. These agreements establish organizational standards that mandate community responsibility for ecosystem protection and the prevention of any form of ecological misbehavior (Zhang 2018). When local residents have withdrawal intentions, they may deliberately violate these organizational norms, such as by over-exploiting natural resources (e.g., trees), resulting in ecosystem degradation (Kim et al. 2019, Tsaur et al. 2019). Therefore, we reasonably predict the mediating effect of withdrawal intention in implicit conflicts and ecological misbehavior and developed the following hypothesis:

H2b: Withdrawal intention mediates the influence of implicit conflicts on ecological misbehavior.

Moderating role of livelihood strategies

Residents who rely on inner livelihood strategies, characterized by a dependency on local resources such as natural resources and community compensation, exhibit a heightened willingness to foster a cooperative relationship with local managers. This is because managers are in a position to offer them enhanced opportunities for benefiting from tourism development, through means such as training, financial support, or revenue sharing (Luo 2021). Consequently, in scenarios where compensation is duly provided, residents are likely to adopt more ecological behaviors in their daily routines to preserve a positive relationship with managers. In contrast, any delays or reductions in compensation can provoke a pronounced loss-aversion effect (Durante et al. 2020). Such circumstances are likely to amplify dissatisfaction with managers, subsequently intensifying the intention to withdraw from environmental responsibilities because of an increased perception of loss (Chong et al. 2020). On the other hand, residents who depend on outer livelihood strategies exhibit a lower reliance on compensation, and consequently, their perceived loss from adequate compensation is minimized. For these individuals, implicit conflicts may not significantly influence their intention to withdraw from environmental responsibilities. Hence, the following hypotheses are proposed:

H3a: Livelihood strategies play a moderating role between implicit conflicts and withdrawal intention.

H3b: For residents relying on inner livelihood strategies, higher implicit conflict leads to higher withdrawal intention.

H3c: For residents relying on outer livelihood strategies, those with different degrees of implicit conflicts have no significant differences in withdrawal intention.

Residents dependent on inner livelihood strategies experience heightened losses in scenarios of inadequate or delayed compensation. Given their reliance on and expectations for managers to furnish compensation and employment opportunities, these residents are compelled to exert additional emotional labor to mitigate their dissatisfaction and tendencies toward conflict, thereby less explicitly expressing their discontent (McIlveen et al. 2021). Furthermore, a portion of their livelihood is derived from activities such as livestock rearing or foraging (e.g., fungi collection), which exert significant impacts on local ecosystems (National Park Service and Southwest Research and Planning Institute 2022). In circumstances where residents struggle to sustain their livelihoods because of compensation deficits, coupled with implicit conflicts with managers, there is an increased likelihood of them redirecting their dissatisfaction toward the ecosystem. Conversely, residents who employ outer livelihood strategies exhibit minimal dependency on local resources, and consequently, the adverse effects of delayed compensation on their livelihoods are comparatively minor. Even in the presence of implicit conflicts, these residents may still exhibit a propensity to shirk environmental responsibilities but they are less inclined to engage in ecological misbehavior. Therefore, we propose the following hypotheses:

H4a: Livelihood strategies play a moderating role between implicit conflicts and ecological misbehavior.

H4b: For residents relying on inner livelihood strategies, a higher implicit conflict leads to more ecological misbehavior.

H4c: For residents relying on outer livelihood strategies, residents with different degrees of implicit conflicts have no significant differences in their ecological misbehavior.

Consequently, we have developed the IWE-S framework (Fig. 1) to elucidate the impact of implicit conflicts on the ecological misbehavior of residents. This framework originates logically from the integration of theories on conflict, displaced aggression, routine activity, withdrawal behavior, and livelihood strategies. It incorporates nine hypotheses that address the dynamics between implicit conflicts (I), withdrawal intention (W), ecological misbehavior (E), and livelihood strategies (S).

METHODOLOGY

Study area

Patatso National Park, covering an area of 1313 square kilometers, is situated in Shangri-La, western China (Fig. 2). The park includes notable landmarks such as Bita Lake, Shudu Lake, and the Militang alpine pastures, in addition to the encompassing forests. Within its boundaries lie Luorong Village and Niru Village, which together comprise approximately 190 households.

Patatso National Park has functioned as a “natural laboratory” for examining the effects of implicit conflicts on the ecological behaviors of local populations. Commencing in 1984, the incremental development of the tourism sector progressively engaged local inhabitants in its operations. This engagement transitioned from initial, sporadic, and spontaneous participation to a structured, small-scale involvement, subsequently expanding to large-scale, unregulated activity before finally facing restrictions. During this evolution, the reliance of local livelihoods on tourism has significantly increased, concurrently influencing the local cultural fabric. Simultaneously, a variety of conflicts have emerged between local residents and park management, reflecting the complex interplay between conservation efforts and community engagement (Ma et al. 2023).

Existing research delineates that the conflicts experienced by Patatso National Park can be systematically classified into seven distinct phases (Table S1, Appendix 1). The character and severity of these conflicts were influenced by a constellation of factors, including the trajectory of tourism development, the degree of community participation, and the compensation provided to the community. Over time, as the tourism sector matured, local residents shifted from a direct engagement in tourism-related activities to assuming more indirect roles. These roles encompassed receiving monetary compensation derived from tourism and securing employment opportunities within tourism-oriented businesses. In exchange for this financial remuneration, community members undertook various environmental responsibilities, including eschewing deforestation, refraining from excavating, limiting the number of grazing livestock, as well as proactively contributing to efforts aimed at forest fire mitigation and the preservation of wildlife (Zhang 2018, Xu et al. 2019).

However, residents’ dissatisfaction with the fixed compensation, established in 2005, has intensified because of ongoing inflation in recent years. This discontent has grown despite an increase in both tourist numbers and income because the economic benefits have not been reflected in their compensation (Xu et al. 2019). The situation has been further aggravated by the COVID-19 pandemic; since December 2019, the outbreak has significantly reduced tourism revenue for Patatso National Park, complicating the allocation of funds for community compensation and thereby diminishing residents’ economic benefits. Moreover, since 2017, following partial closures of Patatso National Park for tourism and a decrease in managerial patrols, there has been a noticeable decline in oversight. This reduction in supervision has increased opportunities for local residents to access ecosystems without proper oversight, underscoring the importance of assessing the impact of implicit conflicts between residents and managers on residents’ ecological behaviors and the pressures on ecological protection. In parallel, a Chinese research initiative, as part of “the second Tibet Plateau scientific expedition and research” project (MSTC 2018, Fan et al. 2019, Chen et al. 2024), has identified Patatso National Park as a key area for study. The authors, active members of this project team, have conducted independent third-party research within the park. This research was carried out in coordination with, yet independently of, the park’s management, ensuring a comprehensive and impartial evaluation of the area.

Data collection

To ensure the generalizability and reproducibility of the IWE-S framework, a multi-sample design was adopted, in alignment with the recommendations put forth by Wen et al. (2020) and Kim and Kim (2018). We conducted three separate empirical studies on residents living within Patatso National Park. The objectives of Study 1 were to verify H1, which concerns the relationship between implicit conflicts and ecological misbehavior; of Study 2 to verify H2a and H2b, regarding implicit conflicts, withdrawal intention, and ecological misbehavior, and to re-test H1; and of Study 3 to verify H3a, H3b, H3c, H4a, H4b, and H4c, as well as re-verifying H1, H2a, and H2b, with regard to implicit conflicts, withdrawal intention, ecological misbehavior, and livelihood strategies.

The respondents for each of the three studies were identified through field surveys, as specified in Table 1. The households interviewed in each study were uniquely selected. A total of 125 households within Patatso National Park’s boundaries were approached, with all eligible members (aged 18 and above) invited to participate in a survey conducted in Chinese. Data collection for Studies 1, 2, and 3 occurred in April 2022, May 2022, and June 2022, respectively. The research team comprised three PhD candidates with specializations in ecology, geography, and tourism, assisted by a local guide who facilitated communication and served as a translator. Snowball sampling was employed as the sampling strategy.

In Study 1, participants were presented with a questionnaire designed to evaluate implicit conflicts and ecological misbehavior (Table S2, Appendix 2). Implicit conflict was conceptualized to encompass elements of dissatisfaction and a perceived low self-efficacy in expressing such dissatisfaction, thus operationalized as a second-order construct. This construct was assessed via two dimensions: dissatisfaction, measured by three items—“Compensation issues have negatively impacted my life” (ID1), “Compensation issues put me in a bad mood” (ID2), “I perceive compensation issues as unfair” (ID3)—and low self-efficacy in expressing dissatisfaction, evaluated through three items—“Expressing my concerns is not beneficial for me” (IL1), “I lack effective means to communicate directly with managers” (IL2), “My only option is to endure the situation” (IL3). These measures draw upon the work of Kim et al. (2021), Liu et al. (2022), Wang et al. (2022), Zhang et al. (2021), and Zheng et al. (2021) for dissatisfaction, and Chung et al. (2021) and Wang and Lopez (2020) for low self-efficacy.

Ecological misbehavior was assessed using items derived from the New Environmental Paradigm (NEP) scale. The NEP scale has been validated as an effective tool for distinguishing between individuals based on their level of ecological awareness, with lower levels of awareness correlated with a higher likelihood of engaging in ecological misbehavior (Dunlap and Van Liere 1978, Dunlap et al. 2000, Hultman et al. 2015). For this study, five NEP items were selected to assess ecological attitudes, including: “Humans have the right to modify the natural environment to suit their needs” (E1), “When humans interfere with nature it often produces disastrous consequences” (E2), “Humans are seriously abusing the environment” (E3), “The so-called “ecological crisis” facing humankind has been greatly exaggerated” (E4), and “The balance of nature is very delicate and easily upset” (E5).

In Study 2, participants were asked to address queries related to implicit conflicts and ecological misbehavior, with a particular focus on withdrawal intention. The construct of withdrawal intention was assessed through a scale adapted from Lehman and Simpson (1992) and Woolum et al. (2017), further contextualized to reflect the environmental commitments of the residents in Patatso National Park. Three items were employed for this purpose: “I find it too burdensome to engage in ecological protection efforts” (W1), “Ecological protection is only the responsibility of the park management” (W2), and “I have witnessed ecological damage but chose not to act” (W3).

In Study 3, participants were required to respond to items evaluating implicit conflicts and ecological misbehavior, utilizing the same metrics as Study 1. Similar to Study 2, queries regarding withdrawal intention were included. Additionally, participants were asked to elucidate their livelihood strategies. To ascertain livelihood strategies, participants were presented with the question, “What is your main source of livelihood?” Three response options were provided, reflecting the predominant livelihood strategies among residents of Patatso National Park as identified in previous studies (National Park Service and Southwest Research and Planning Institute 2020): employment outside the park, farming or herding within the park, and reliance on compensation and dividends. Respondents deriving their income from employment outside the park were categorized under “outer livelihoods,” while those dependent on farming, herding, or compensation and dividends within the park were classified as “inner livelihoods.” Demographic information, including gender, age, and educational level, was collected from all respondents across the studies.

Data analysis

This research utilizes frequency statistics for a descriptive analysis of sample characteristics. The analysis of empirical data, for the purpose of validating the proposed theoretical hypotheses across three studies, was conducted using PLS-SEM via SmartPLS software. PLS-SEM, a variance-based modeling technique that relies on variance to estimate model parameters, was chosen because of its appropriateness for datasets characterized by small sample sizes and non-normal sample data distributions (Hair et al. 2019). The relatively limited number of residential households in Patatso National Park (approximately 190), necessitated a small sample size for each conducted survey. Moreover, the employment of a Likert scale for measurement introduces the possibility of a non-normal distribution of sample data (Xiao and Hau 2023). PLS-SEM is known for its capability to yield robust results when applied to such datasets (Hair et al. 2021). The evaluation of model performance was conducted through the examination of the outer loading of each item, the significance of coefficients, composite reliability (CR), average variance extracted (AVE), and Cronbach’s alpha for each construct. The criteria for the parameters of a qualified model are detailed in Table 2.

The outer loading of each item quantifies the extent to which individual items contribute to their respective latent variables (Hair et al. 2019). The significance of coefficients pertains to the likelihood of committing an error while estimating population parameters within a specified interval, conventionally set at a threshold of 0.05. CR serves as an indicator of the variance shared among observed variables representing a latent construct (Fornell and Larcker 1981). AVE assesses the proportion of variance captured by a construct versus the variance attributable to measurement error. Cronbach’s alpha serves as a metric for evaluating the reliability of a test, gauging the internal consistency among test items (Hair et al. 2021). The formula for Cronbach’s alpha is given as:

(1)

In this formula, K signifies the number of test items, S_i² represents the sum of variances for each item, and S_x² denotes the variance of the total scores across all respondents.

RESULTS

Demographic results and descriptive findings

In Study 1, data were collected from a sample comprising 51 participants, with slightly more males (55%), individuals aged 60 or above (43%), and those with an educational level of high school and below (96%). Study 2 involved a sample of 35 participants, with a higher proportion of females (60%), with 43% aged between 31 and 60 years, and 83% having attained a maximum educational level of high school. In Study 3, the sample included 69 respondents, with a marginally higher number of males (52%), aged between 31 and 60 years (39%), and possessing a high school education or lower (72%). Across these studies, the findings revealed that participants exhibited levels of implicit conflict (mean = 4.66, standard deviation = 1.63) and ecological misbehavior (mean = 4.54, standard deviation = 1.91) that were above the median value of 4 on a 7-point Likert scale, which ranges from 1 (“strongly disagree”) to 7 (“strongly agree”). Levels of withdrawal intention were found to be below the median (mean = 3.65, standard deviation = 1.80). This shows a discrepancy between the ecological misbehavior and implicit conflict versus the lower propensity toward withdrawal intentions among the participants.

Model measurement results

The results of the measurement model for both Study 1 and Study 2 demonstrated that the outer loading of each item exceeded 0.7, and the bootstrapping results confirmed that the coefficients were statistically significant at the 0.05 level. This suggests that the observed variables adequately represented the latent variables (Table S3, Appendix 3; Table S7, Appendix 4). In Study 1, the Cronbach’s alpha for each construct ranged from 0.710 to 0.855, the CR spanned from 0.838 to 0.897, and the AVE varied from 0.633 to 0.661 (Table S4, Appendix 3). These metrics affirm the model’s robust construct reliability and validity. The Fornell-Larcker analysis revealed that the AVEs of the latent variables surpassed the correlation coefficients with other variables, evidencing substantial discriminant validity (Table S5, Appendix 3). In Study 2, the Cronbach’s alpha values ranged from 0.811 to 0.918, the CR from 0.890 to 0.943, and the AVE from 0.730 to 0.846, indicating commendable construct reliability and validity (Table S8, Appendix 4). The Fornell-Larcker analysis for Study 2 shows that the AVEs of the latent variables were greater than their correlations with other variables, confirming high discriminant validity (Table S9, Appendix 4).

Hypothesis testing results

The analysis of the sample in Study 1 (Fig. 3; Table S6, Appendix 3C) revealed that implicit conflicts exert a significant positive effect on ecological misbehavior (path coefficient = 0.562, p < 0.001, R² = 0.315). Consequently, H1 was supported, underscoring the critical need to delve into the repercussions of social conflicts on ecological conservation. However, it remains unclear why implicit social conflict leads to ecological misbehavior of residents, so Study 2 introduced the concept of withdrawal intention to explore its mechanism.

The findings from the structural model analysis in Study 2 (Fig. 4; Table S10, Appendix 4) show that withdrawal intention serves as a mediatory role between implicit conflicts and ecological misbehavior. Implicit conflicts were found to significantly augment withdrawal intentions (path coefficient = 0.335, p = 0.044, R² = 0.112). An increase in withdrawal intention was associated with an escalation in ecological misbehavior (path coefficient = 0.456, p = 0.004, R² = 0.246), thereby verifying H2a. With the mediation of withdrawal intention, the direct influence of implicit conflicts on ecological misbehavior became statistically non-significant (path coefficient = 0.095, p = 0.552), suggesting the confirmation of H2b.

The analysis of the sample in Study 3 (Fig. 5; Table S11, Appendix 5) revealed a significant divergence in the impact of implicit conflicts on withdrawal intentions between residents employing inner livelihood strategies and those utilizing outer livelihood strategies (inner livelihood strategies: path coefficients = 0.714, p < 0.001; outer livelihood strategies: path coefficients = 0.260, p = 0.240), reflecting that livelihood strategies act as a moderator in the relationship between implicit conflicts and withdrawal intentions, supporting H3a. Among residents adhering to inner livelihood strategies, a higher level of implicit conflict was found to significantly elevate withdrawal intentions. For residents adopting outer livelihood strategies, implicit conflicts were found to exert no significant effect on withdrawal intentions, thus confirming H3b and H3c.

The analysis revealed significant differences in the impact of implicit conflicts on ecological misbehavior among residents, mediated by withdrawal intention, based on their adoption of either inner or outer livelihood strategies (inner livelihood strategies: path coefficients = 0.622, p = 0.004; outer livelihood strategies: path coefficients = -0.276, p = 0.311). This variation underscores the moderating influence of livelihood strategies on the relationship between implicit conflicts and ecological misbehavior, substantiating H4a. Residents relying on inner livelihood strategies experienced a significant increase in ecological misbehavior in response to higher levels of implicit conflict. For residents engaged in outer livelihood strategies, implicit conflicts did not significantly affect ecological misbehavior. Hence, H4b and H4c are supported.

DISCUSSION

Maintaining the equilibrium and resilience of social-ecological systems necessitates effective collaboration between managers and local residents (Cumming and Allen 2017). Although the establishment of productive, sustainable interactions between PAs and the local communities has been acknowledged for its conceptual and practical significance, attracting considerable attention over the past three decades, a substantial portion of the extant literature is characterized by qualitative analyses. This research aims to quantitatively investigate the impact of implicit social conflicts on ecosystem conservation within PAs, with a particular emphasis on the ecological misbehavior of local residents as a principal observation point. To examine how these conflicts between local residents and managers influence such misbehavior, we introduced the IWE-S framework. This framework, grounded in conflict theory, displaced aggression, routine activity theory, withdrawal behavior, and livelihood theory, is validated through multi-sample empirical evidence from Patatso National Park. The IWE-S framework elucidates the pathway through which implicit conflicts exacerbate the ecological misbehavior of local residents by amplifying their intention to withdraw from environmental responsibilities. The moderating role of livelihood strategies in the relationship between implicit conflicts and both withdrawal intention and ecological misbehavior was confirmed, delineating a clearer theoretical boundary for the impact of implicit social conflicts on ecological misbehavior.

Theoretical contribution

This research elucidated the mediating role of withdrawal intention in the relationship between implicit conflicts and ecological misbehavior among local residents, deepening the comprehension of the pathways through which implicit conflicts lead to ecological misbehavior. Although previous studies have acknowledged that implicit conflicts between communities and management can provoke adverse reactions toward ecological conservation (Ma et al. 2022, Zhu et al. 2022), the intricate mechanisms driving this dynamic have not been thoroughly investigated (Allendorf 2020). The IWE-S framework proposed in this research suggests that implicit conflicts heighten residents’ propensity to withdraw from environmental responsibilities, which may, in turn, manifest as ecological misbehavior. It is posited that in instances where implicit conflicts do not diminish the residents’ dedication to ecosystem health, such conflicts do not precipitate ecological misbehavior, a finding corroborated by research from Xu et al. (2024) and Akerlof (2023). When residents regard environmental stewardship as a personal obligation rather than a directive from management, implicit conflicts are less likely to result in ecological misbehavior (Jia et al. 2021). In the context of Patatso National Park, local residents engaged in activities harmful to the ecosystem (e.g., destroying ecosystems, over-exploitation of resources, and exhibiting indifference toward or failing to participate in ecological protection efforts), spurred by dissatisfaction with the allocation of tourism revenues. Despite a subsequent decrease in these activities following financial recompense from management and the establishment of environmental agreements, this pattern indicates lackluster environmental responsibility among local residents (Tian and Yang 2009, Zhang 2018, Xu et al. 2019). This scenario intimates that implicit conflicts amplify the likelihood of ecological misbehavior among residents (Fig. 3; Table S6, Appendix 3).

This research has identified the moderating role of livelihood strategies (i.e., employment outside the park, farming or herding within the park, and reliance on compensation and dividends) on the influence of implicit conflicts, and for the first time, it has outlined the specific conditions under which implicit conflicts lead to ecological misbehavior. This distinction clarifies the mechanism through which implicit conflicts trigger withdrawal intentions and ecological misbehavior in certain residents, but not in others, highlighting that this significant effect is confined to residents engaged in inner livelihood strategies. This finding aligns with Gonçalves et al. (2022), who observed that residents reliant on natural resources for their livelihoods are significantly impacted by their interactions with PA management. In Patatso National Park, in an effort to reduce environmentally harmful livelihood activities and relieve ecosystem pressures, PA managers have established agreements with the local community. These agreements have facilitated the introduction of alternative livelihood opportunities, such as park ranger and scenic area sanitation roles (Zhang 2018), which have contributed to a decrease in destructive activities, mitigating ecosystem pressure and transitioning resident livelihoods from ecologically detrimental practices to those reliant on ecological compensation or tourism dividends. However, this transition has led to deteriorating relationships between the community and management, primarily due to growing community dissatisfaction with the restricted benefits derived from tourism development. The approach to resolving social relationship challenges varies across cultures. The collective consciousness prevalent among Patatso National Park’s local residents, developed over a significant historical period, fosters a pronounced sense of affiliation with their community. Additionally, there exists a concern among local residents that openly expressing dissatisfaction may result in unfair policy repercussions (Thondhlana et al. 2016, Zafra-Calvo and Geldmann 2020).When dissatisfaction stems from infringed individual interests, there is a tendency to internalize such grievances. Nevertheless, these suppressed grievances may be expressed through a withdrawal from environmental responsibilities and ultimately manifest as ecological misbehavior, posing a challenge to ecological conservation. The IWE-S framework emphasizes the importance for PA managers to acknowledge the impact of their dynamic relationships with local residents on ecological conservation, particularly focusing on those residents employing inner livelihood strategies.

This research contributes innovative insights into the enhancement of ecological risk assessments within PAs. Ecological risk assessment, defined as the process of estimating the likelihood of a particular event under specific conditions (Park et al. 2015), has traditionally focused on the analysis of human activities based on past events, such as urban expansion and the transformation of natural landscapes into agricultural land (Duan et al. 2022). However, the potential of these activities to cause harm has not been adequately assessed from a preventative standpoint. The adverse impacts of ecological misbehavior on ecosystems are profound and far-reaching (Ren et al. 2021). By integrating a preventive perspective into these assessments, the utility of ecological risk assessment in ecosystem management can be markedly improved. This research has identified that in communities engaging in inner livelihood strategies and upholding environmental agreements with management, a rise in implicit local conflicts is associated with an increased propensity for ecological misbehavior among residents, thus elevating the ecological risk. Accordingly, the application of the IWE-S framework enables the assessment of ecological risks within PAs, offering a means to compare the ecological risks across various PAs based on community livelihood strategies, environmental commitments, and the existence of implicit conflicts between communities and management. This framework supports a long-term, dynamic approach to assessing ecological risks in PAs, adaptable to the changing intensities of implicit social conflicts.

PA managerial implications

This research offers PA managers practical insights for enhancing the management of implicit conflicts and thereby facilitating the effectiveness of ecosystems conservation. First, it is crucial to intensify efforts in the detection of implicit social conflicts. Given that implicit conflicts differ significantly from explicit ones, often eluding easy detection, it is imperative for PA managers to adopt a proactive approach in identifying these conflicts to devise efficacious mitigation strategies. A viable method to accomplish this involves conducting anonymous community surveys aimed at assessing the prevalence of implicit conflicts. The design of these surveys should incorporate the conceptual dimensions outlined in this research, specifically, a second-order construct comprising dissatisfaction and a lack of self-efficacy in articulating dissatisfaction explicitly. The formulation of survey questions and the selection of measurement techniques should be carefully adapted to reflect the specific context of the region in question. PA managers need to commission regular surveys conducted by third-party neutral organizations rather than waiting for a crisis to occur, as respondents may withhold their true opinions because of concerns that arise in the aftermath of a crisis. Additionally, PA managers should enhance the routine observation and documentation conducted by grassroots workers to promptly report implicit social conflicts.

Second, it is essential for administrators to develop and implement policies aimed at mitigating implicit social conflicts between the community and management. One strategic approach involves PA managers establishing mechanisms that allow residents to express their grievances in a structured and reasonable manner, referred to as a safety valve mechanism (Yang et al. 2013). Furthermore, it is imperative for PA managers to enhance transparency and communication with local residents. This can be achieved by engaging in forthright discussions about the challenges faced in the current development of tourism, endeavoring to understand the perspectives of residents, and cultivating their trust (Wang et al. 2022). A significant aspect of conflict resolution involves consulting with local residents to identify opportunities to bolster their involvement in decision-making processes. To achieve this, PA managers and other staff need to enhance their communication skills with the community through dedicated training and practical experience.

Third, it is incumbent upon decision makers to diminish the inclination of residents to abdicate environmental responsibility and to enhance their proactive efforts in ecosystem conservation, especially among those adopting inner livelihood strategies (Daryanto and Song 2021). It is crucial for managers to foster an awareness of environmental responsibility among residents, encouraging them to perceive it not merely as a duty to the management department but as advantageous for their own well-being (Jia et al. 2021). Although environmental education plays a vital role, a multifaceted strategy that extends beyond mere educational efforts is essential for augmenting environmental responsibility (Dietsch et al. 2018). For instance, policy formulation aimed at strengthening residents’ attachment to their locality (Soopramanien et al. 2023) and targeted communication strategies could provide a valuable mechanism for policy makers to invoke residents’ sense of responsibility. By conveying the adverse impacts of ecological misconduct alongside the significance of pro-environmental values, policy makers can cultivate a deeper environmental sensibility among the residents (Confente and Scarpi 2021). PA managers can also recognize and promote exemplary individuals and families dedicated to ecological protection. By publicizing their achievements through community broadcasts and bulletin boards, they can set positive examples and inspire others to follow.

Limitations and further research

This research had several limitations that point to the scope for future research. First, further investigations are warranted to examine the applicability of the IWE-S framework across a diverse array of case sites, particularly in regions where there is a lack of environmental commitment within communities and in less socially and professionally collaborative contexts. Second, this research focused predominantly on implicit conflicts. It is imperative that future studies delve into explicit conflicts, scrutinizing their contributing factors and the extent to which they influence ecological misbehavior. Third, the scope of this research was confined to three specific types of livelihood strategies (i.e., employment outside the park, farming or herding within the park, and reliance on compensation and dividends). Future inquiries should broaden the range of livelihood strategies considered. Fourth, this research did not account for the impact of local residents’ environmental knowledge on their ecological behaviors. An in-depth analysis that integrates the effects of environmental knowledge and implicit conflicts on ecological misbehavior could yield significant insights. Last, the snowball sampling method used in this study may result in a sample that does not accurately reflect the entire population. The current samples exhibit demographic biases, such as gender imbalances, an overrepresentation of older adults and middle-aged individuals, and a predominance of participants with lower educational levels. These biases limit the generalizability of the findings to a broader population. Future research should employ alternative sampling techniques (e.g., simple random sampling) to compare the differences in research outcomes resulting from various sampling methods.

CONCLUSIONS

The achievement of ecological conservation goals within PAs depends on effective collaboration between residents and managers. However, implicit conflicts between these groups exist, and their impact on ecological conservation is not well understood. This study, grounded in theories of conflict, displaced aggression, routine activity, withdrawal behavior, and livelihood, constructs the IWE-S framework to explain the effects of implicit conflicts on local residents’ ecological misbehavior. The validity and generalizability of this framework were verified through three empirical studies involving multiple respondents from Patatso National Park.

This research elucidates that implicit conflicts elevate residents’ withdrawal intentions from ecological conservation efforts, exacerbating ecological misbehavior. However, this relationship is observed only among residents adopting internal livelihood strategies and is not evident among those employing external livelihood strategies. Based on these findings, PA managers should incorporate the analysis of implicit conflicts into ecological risk assessments to achieve a more comprehensive evaluation of PA risks. It is imperative for PA managers to intensify efforts to detect implicit social conflicts, develop and implement policies aimed at mitigating these conflicts between the community and management, reduce residents’ tendencies to abdicate environmental responsibilities, and enhance their proactive efforts in ecosystem conservation, particularly among those with inner livelihood strategies.

Further investigations are needed to examine the applicability of the IWE-S framework across diverse case sites, to explore explicit conflicts by scrutinizing their contributing factors and the extent to which they influence ecological misbehavior, to broaden the range of livelihood strategies considered, to conduct an in-depth analysis integrating the effects of environmental knowledge and implicit conflicts on ecological misbehavior, and to employ simple random sampling to compare differences in research outcomes resulting from various sampling methods.

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