Research

INTRODUCTION

Traditional indigenous knowledge regarding territories and the importance of conserving forests and their elements are crucial for biodiversity preservation and environmental sustainability. As highlighted by Carneiro da Cunha and Almeida (2000), indigenous populations’ management practices have been vital for maintaining complex and biodiverse ecosystems in the Amazon. These practices encompass not only the sustainable use of natural resources but also a profound respect for non-human beings and natural elements. Therefore, conserving these areas is not merely about protecting nature but also about preserving a vast cultural and ecological heritage (Carneiro da Cunha and Almeida 2000, Athayde et al. 2016).

Carneiro da Cunha and Almeida (2000) underscores that traditional indigenous knowledge systems offer invaluable insights into sustainable resource management and comprehensive environmental management of biodiversity. These systems include practices for the sustainable utilization of natural resources and embody deep reverence for non-human entities and natural elements. Thus, safeguarding these ecosystems is not solely about environmental protection but also entails preserving an extensive cultural and ecological heritage. Integrating traditional indigenous wisdom into conservation strategies provides a pathway toward more effective and culturally sensitive approaches to conserving forests and their components, thereby fostering sustainable and equitable development.

Ellen’s analysis (1998) illuminates discussions surrounding ethnobiological knowledge among tropical rainforest peoples and their perceptions of biodiversity. Indigenous communities conceptualize biodiversity through socio-cosmological frameworks that are central to their ethnobiological knowledge systems. This encompasses their understanding of ecosystem coexistence, traditional medicinal practices, agro-food systems, and agricultural techniques for crop cultivation and propagation. These cultural practices and scientific insights not only sustain community livelihoods but also provide crucial environmental services, including biodiversity conservation and water management.

Indigenous agricultural and forest management systems profoundly influence biodiversity distribution, fostering semi-domesticated and domesticated species within anthropogenic landscapes. These systems, rooted in shifting cultivation, rely on fallow periods to regenerate forests and soils, as practiced by Amazonian indigenous groups who cultivate multiple species concurrently. This adaptive management approach, informed by indigenous knowledge and social technologies, promotes forest regeneration and biodiversity restoration during fallow periods (Schmidt et al. 2021).

However, these traditional systems face growing threats from corporate agriculture, land exploitation, and biodiversity loss driven by capital. Schmidt et al. (2021) highlight impacts in the Xingu Indigenous Territory, where agro-food systems and land use patterns have disrupted local biodiversity. Despite challenges such as fires and monocultures linked to neo-extractivism, indigenous agroforestry practices support biodiversity through habitats attractive to wildlife, crucial in both cosmology and seed dispersal. Traditional practices and ancestral technologies demonstrate potential contributions to forest regeneration.

The convergence of traditional knowledge, indigenous sciences, and conservation biology has garnered substantial attention within ecological research, particularly within global indigenous communities. These communities serve as repositories of invaluable local environmental wisdom, offering indispensable insights for the effective management of diverse ecosystems (Mavhura and Mushure 2019, Abas et al. 2022, Qin et al. 2023).

Residing in tropical forests, these communities perceive humanity as an intrinsic component of intricate forest ecosystems. These forests, held in high esteem by indigenous populations, serve as guardians of vital resources such as springs, climate regulation, soil fertility, and erosion control, significantly contributing to the diverse territorial dynamics (Camino et al. 2023, Sandroni 2023).

The commendable preservation efforts of Earth’s ecosystems by indigenous peoples, particularly those residing in tropical forests, transcend meticulous mapping. They reflect a complex and profound system of knowledge involving a unique relationship with the territory, embodying an ontological perspective. This is exemplified through their detailed mapping of ancestral lands, signifying these areas as cultural landscapes sustained by deep reciprocal relationships. These relationships encompass the sustainable management of natural resources, the exchange of traditional ecological knowledge, spiritual connections, and respectful stewardship between indigenous communities and their natural environment. Understanding the cosmo-perceptions of these indigenous peoples and their deep-rooted connections to these territories is crucial for advancing environmental conservation efforts (Selemani 2020).

In their influential study, Berkes et al. (2000) explore the rediscovery of traditional ecological knowledge (TEK) as a comprehensive system of intricate and profound understanding. This knowledge framework entails a distinct relationship with the territory, imbuing it with ontological significance. TEK encompasses not only ecological insights but also social, cultural, and spiritual dimensions that shape how indigenous communities perceive and engage with their environments. This holistic perspective underpins sustainable resource management practices rooted in centuries of experiential learning and profound reverence for natural systems. The indigenous peoples of tropical forests’ intricate relationship with their territory exemplifies this comprehensive system of knowledge, reflecting an ontological perspective distinct from Western paradigms.

Their deep ecological wisdom is characterized by an adaptive management approach, as highlighted by Berkes et al. (2000), who emphasize the dynamic and responsive nature of traditional ecological knowledge. The indigenous peoples of tropical forests’ biocultural memories are not merely historical accounts but active, living practices that inform sustainable interactions with the Atlantic Rainforests. Their ontological framework integrates spiritual, social, and environmental dimensions, fostering a holistic stewardship of biodiversity crucial for the resilience and sustainability of these ecosystems.

Drawing on insights from Kohn (2013) regarding how forests “think” beyond human understanding, it becomes evident that these reciprocal relationships are fundamental to comprehending the biocultural memories and ecological wisdom embedded within the Atlantic Rainforests. Recognizing and honoring these connections is crucial for fostering resilience and sustainability in these ecosystems.

Fausto and Neves (2018) critically examine the existence of a Neolithic period in the Neotropics, offering insights into plant familiarization and biodiversity in the Amazon. This perspective further underscores the deep historical and ecological connections that indigenous peoples maintain with their environments. Understanding these intricate reciprocal relationships is therefore essential for appreciating the biocultural memories and ecological wisdom inherent to the Atlantic Rainforests, highlighting their pivotal role in fostering resilience and sustainability.

Understanding indigenous cosmo-perceptions and their deep connections to the environment can significantly contribute to the conservation of their territories. Descola (1996) discusses how symbolic ecology and social practices shape indigenous relationships with nature, illustrating that these perspectives are not only about resource management but also about cultural identity and spiritual connection.

Since the 1980s, the burgeoning interest in traditional ecological knowledge has spurred the development of a new ecological ethos, shaped through collaboration with indigenous researchers (Gordon et al. 2023, Singleton et al. 2023). This ethos draws upon both historical ecology and ethnobiology. Historical ecology integrates ecological data with historical records, oral traditions, and archaeological evidence to reconstruct past environmental conditions and assess human impacts (Berkes et al. 2000). Ethnobiology complements this approach by examining indigenous knowledge systems and their contributions to understanding biodiversity and sustainable resource management (Ellen 1998).

Together, these interdisciplinary perspectives provide insights into how ecosystems have evolved because of human activities, informing contemporary conservation strategies and sustainable management practices (Descola 1996, Berkes et al. 2000). By framing historical ecology and ethnobiology as scientific foundations, this ethos emphasizes the importance of learning from historical ecological dynamics and indigenous knowledge to guide present and future environmental stewardship strategies. This holistic approach not only strengthens our connection with nature but also drives innovative theoretical and methodological advancements in biodiversity conservation, rooted in principles of autonomy (Whyte et al. 2016).

The resurgence of indigenous voices in academic spheres exemplifies unique methodologies. Despite this wealth, establishing an enduring dialogue between environmental sciences and indigenous wisdom remains challenging because of the complexity of their interwoven dimensions (Johnson 2012).

Political ecology examines power dynamics, contributing to decolonial approaches and enhancing the visibility and value of indigenous knowledge. Including indigenous perspectives, political ecology illuminates ecological relationships amid contemporary challenges. Recognizing the significance of indigenous sciences in socio-environmental conservation projects is crucial, particularly in addressing socio-territorial conflicts (McGregor et al. 2020).

Contemporary political ecology highlights the dynamic interactions among nature and culture, symbolic and material realms, and local and global scales, moving beyond simplistic binaries. Ethnographic studies are employed to examine how nature is constructed and appropriated across varied global settings, thereby shedding light on the complex political dynamics in operation (Biersack and Greenberg 2006). In Brazil, the Guarani-Kaiowá people exemplify resilience in the face of land usurpation by entities such as agribusiness, with their multifaceted resistance revealing the complexities encountered by their community (Ioris 2020).

Noelli et al. (2019) provide a comprehensive exploration of the Guarani traditional environmental knowledge, referred to as Ñande reko, which encompasses the foundational principles guiding their interaction with nature. These principles are not merely historical accounts but active, living practices that inform sustainable interactions with the Atlantic Rainforests. The biocultural memories of these indigenous peoples integrate spiritual, social, and environmental dimensions, fostering a holistic management of biodiversity that is crucial for the resilience and sustainability of these ecosystems.

The Guarani-Kaiowá’s intricate relationship with their territory embodies a comprehensive system of complex and profound knowledge, rooted in an ontological perspective distinct from non-indigenous paradigms. As Tengö et al. (2014) describe, this knowledge system integrates diverse epistemologies through a multiple evidence base approach, thereby enhancing ecosystem governance by valuing and connecting different knowledge systems.

This holistic understanding, underscored by Tengö et al. (2014), emphasizes the interweaving of diverse knowledge systems within global sustainability frameworks. For the Guarani-Kaiowá, this includes practical ecological knowledge alongside spiritual, cultural, and social dimensions that inform their stewardship of biodiversity in the Atlantic Rainforests. Biocultural memories serve as active, living practices that guide their sustainable interactions with the environment, reflecting a deep-seated connection and responsibility to their ancestral lands (Pedro et al. 2023).

For the Guarani-Kaiowá, traditional ecological knowledge is not merely a collection of practices but an ontological framework that encompasses spiritual, social, and environmental dimensions. This deep ecological wisdom informs sustainable interactions with the Atlantic Rainforests, where biocultural memories serve as active, living practices that guide their management of biodiversity. This holistic perspective is crucial for fostering resilience and sustainability within their ecosystems, emphasizing the importance of acknowledging and integrating indigenous knowledge systems into broader ecological governance frameworks (Pavão and Gisloti 2023).

In this context, Ellen’s insights (1998) are pivotal for comprehending the cosmo-politics of tropical forest communities and their interactions within environments such as the Atlantic Forest. Peoples inhabiting tropical forests, including groups like the Guarani-Kaiowá, reclaim their territories to establish pathways for forest recovery in areas impacted by neo-extractive industries driven by capital expansion. These restoration efforts embody ancestral practices and technologies aimed at promoting sustainability. Across diverse regions, other indigenous groups leverage their ethnobiological knowledge to inform strategic political actions amidst environmental challenges. Indigenous territories serve as crucial bastions in safeguarding and restoring intact forests as repositories of biodiversity.

The reflection on the importance of cosmo-politics and indigenous sciences for biodiversity conservation demands recognizing that forests are also constituted by a set of creative spirits, deities, owners, and beings whose sociability relations resemble human ones (Descola 1996), which are fundamental for forest recovery actions. The past decades have witnessed an expansion of discussions in Amazonian anthropology regarding the narratives of indigenous peoples concerning relations between humans and non-humans.

This study aims to investigate the significance of biocultural memories (Posey 1999, Toledo and Barrera-Bassols 2008) and cosmo-political ecology (Viveiros de Castro 1998, Pavão and Gisloti 2023) within the Guarani-Kaiowá community. It seeks to elucidate their perceptions of the forest and its inhabitants, underscoring the urgency of bridging the gap between environmental sciences and indigenous wisdom to chart a sustainable future

METHODS

The Guarani-Kaiowá people and the territory

This study focuses on the Guarani-Kaiowá people, an indigenous group residing under precarious conditions in the Midwest region of Brazil. Alongside the Guarani-Ñandeva, they constitute the country’s second-largest indigenous population, comprising approximately 50,000 individuals (Kolte et al. 2020). They are part of the broader Guarani ethnolinguistic group, renowned for their profound connection to their land and environment. The Guarani-Kaiowá’s cultural identity and survival are intricately linked to their traditional territory, known as tekoha, which embodies their way of life, spirituality, and ecological practices (Benites 2020).

The concept of tekoha is central to the Guarani-Kaiowá’s land management practices. Tekoha refers to a living space that integrates the natural environment, cultural practices, and spiritual beliefs of the Guarani-Kaiowá. It encapsulates their ethos of living in coexistence with nature and preserving the integrity of the ecosystem. This approach sharply contrasts with the conventional, extractive land-use practices that dominate the region (Benites 2020, Pedro et al. 2023).

Tekoha holds profound significance for the Guarani-Kaiowá people, representing more than just a physical place, it encompasses their entire way of life, spirituality, and cultural identity. It refers to their ancestral land, where they have lived for generations, and where their traditions, beliefs, and practices are deeply rooted. Tekoha embodies a holistic concept of territory that integrates spiritual, social, and ecological dimensions. It is not merely a geographical space but a sacred and irreplaceable part of their existence, essential for their well-being and continuity as a people (Benites 2020).

The occupation of the Guarani-Kaiowá in the Atlantic Rainforests and surrounding regions dates back centuries. Their presence in this area has been marked by deep knowledge of local biodiversity and sophisticated environmental management systems. Historically, the Guarani-Kaiowá have practiced agroforestry, hunting, and fishing, maintaining a balance with the ecosystem (Bueno et al. 2005, Pedro et al. 2022, Pavão and Gisloti 2023).

The Guarani-Kaiowá’s management system is deeply rooted in their cultural and spiritual beliefs. Their practices are guided by a holistic understanding of the environment, which encompasses not only the physical landscape but also the spiritual and mythological significance of the land. This knowledge is transmitted through oral traditions, rituals, and communal activities, ensuring that each generation upholds the ecological wisdom of their ancestors (Pavão and Gisloti 2023).

Their ecological management includes diverse agricultural practices, such as the cultivation of traditional crops using polyculture and agroforestry techniques. These practices enhance biodiversity, soil fertility, and resilience against pests and diseases (Pedro et al. 2022).

In recent decades, the Guarani-Kaiowá have faced significant challenges in maintaining their traditional territories. The expansion of agribusiness activities, deforestation, and legal disputes over land ownership have led to the displacement of many communities (Ioris 2022, Mondardo 2022, Pedro et al. 2023).

Despite these struggles, the Guarani-Kaiowá have actively resisted and sought to reclaim their lands through various forms of protest, legal action, and political advocacy (Ioris 2020). Their resilience and determination underscore the importance of their biocultural heritage in the face of modern pressures (Benites 2020).

Research development and information gathering

Our study focused on engaging directly with the perspectives and experiences of shamans and traditional knowledge holders. This approach aimed to underscore and enhance the recognition of ecocentric approaches that respect and integrate the knowledge and practices of traditional communities in the conservation and sustainable management of ecosystems (Trisos et al. 2021).

Designated as Ñande Ru and Ñande Sy, these esteemed figures play pivotal roles in safeguarding the territorial and spiritual integrity of the Guarani-Kaiowá community (Pedro et al. 2023). They perpetuate ceremonial practices that deepen their spiritual connections, reinforce the community’s cultural identity, and serve as pivotal leaders in the quest for territorial reclamation (Kolte et al. 2020).

Three shamans and two traditional knowledge holders (n = 5), were selected using a snowball sampling technique, where individuals possessing traditional knowledge shared recommendations of the most qualified interviewees (Bernard 1988). At the Tekoha Tapy Kora reserve, the study benefited from the wisdom and insights of three shamans, namely, Ñande Ru Eduardo Recalde, Ñande Sy Amélia Servim, and Ñande Sy Adelaide Lopes. In the Tekoha Yvýa Kandire territory, traditional knowledge holders João Aquino and Mônica Aparecida shared their knowledge.

Characteristics of the region of the study area

This research focused on two indigenous territories inhabited by the Guarani-Kaiowá people, located in the mid-western region of Brazil within the Atlantic Forest Biome. These territories, approximately 150 kilometers apart, are commonly referred to as tekoha in the Guarani-Kaiowá language, representing “a place of being” within the Guarani-Kaiowá culture.

The prevailing soil in these regions is neossolo quartzarenic, characterized by low natural fertility, variable depth, and limited water retention capacity. The natural vegetation corresponds to the Submontane Semideciduous Seasonal Forest classification, a subset of the Atlantic Forest domains (Ratter et al. 1996). However, this biome grapples with widespread devastation, water pollution, and reserves situated at a distance from water sources. These challenges have led to the coercive and forceful displacement of the Guarani-Kaiowá people (Pavão and Gisloti 2023).

Tekoha Yvýa Kandire

The Tekoha Yvýa Kandire territory (coordinates: 22° 13′ 67.3″ S and 54° 66′ 51.2″ W; Figs. 1 and 2) was formally recognized in 2004, almost a century after the initial establishment of the indigenous reserve within the same municipality. After fifty years of residing on 60 hectares of land, the community successfully expanded its original territory to 1272 hectares by 2004. Presently, the Special Indigenous Sanitary District (DSEI) reports a population of 414 individuals residing in this area (Silva et al. 2021).

Tekoha Tapy Kora

Located within the Amambai municipality, Mato Grosso do Sul, Brazil, the Tekoha Tapy Kora reserve (coordinates: 23° 10′ 49.3″ S and 55° 12′ 23.4″ W; Figs. 1 and 2) was established in 1928 by the Indian Protection Service (SPI), spanning an area of 608 hectares and accommodating approximately 3000 inhabitants. The constraints of these territories significantly limit the community’s ability to manage resources and preserve their traditional lifestyle.

Development of the research and collection of information

The methodology employed encompassed a variety of techniques, such as semi-structured interviews, guided tours, and free listing (Albuquerque et al. 2014), grounded in the paradigm of participatory research (Chambers 1994, Athayde et al. 2017). This approach involves participatory activities, where communities not only contribute to defining research questions but also directly engage in implementing proposed solutions.

Throughout this methodological journey, reflexivity is encouraged, enabling continuous analysis of the roles of researchers and the involved communities. Furthermore, there is a significant effort to tailor research methods to local cultures and values, ensuring respect and effectiveness in the initiatives undertaken. These principles are pivotal for an ethical and collaborative approach aimed at benefiting indigenous communities and promoting sustainable development (Athayde et al. 2017).

This methodology actively seeks to involve local participants from the initial planning stages through to result interpretation, distinguishing itself from traditional methods by emphasizing direct collaboration and the inclusion of local perspectives and knowledge. Its primary goal is to empower communities as active and decisive participants in research, allowing them to express their needs, priorities, and specific contexts authentically and meaningfully (Chambers 1994).

Within a semi-structured methodology framework, interviews conducted between 2019 and 2022 took place in the Guarani-Kaiowá language. These sessions aimed to revive biocultural memory through dialogue focused on traditional and ancestral knowledge concerning the territory’s flora and fauna. The interviews took place between January and February 2019, July 2020, December 2021, and March 2022 within each village, and were thoroughly documented using digital tools and field notes. Subsequently, collected data underwent transcription into Portuguese and translation into English, aiming to preserve original terms while adding necessary interpretations.

Active participation of Guarani-Kaiowá community members among the researchers significantly enriched research dynamics, fostering deep trust between participants and indigenous researchers. This inclusive approach facilitated serene conversations seamlessly integrated into daily activities, allowing unrestricted interactions and contributing to an understanding of the biocultural.

Subsequent to the interview sessions, guided tours played a consequential role, further exploring topics addressed during interviews and stimulating increased participant involvement. Encouraging contemplation encompassing various facets, such as the region’s flora, fauna, and landscape-shaping factors, these tours provided an environment for in-depth engagement and reflection. The guided tours lasted approximately 2 hours, with each trail in each territory covering a distance of 1.5 km.

Data analysis

Data organization utilized Microsoft Excel 2019 software, featuring details including Biological Classification, taxon descriptor authors, Emic Classification (in the Guarani-Kaiowá language), and corresponding common names. Systematic arrangement within the table was based on taxonomic classifications of Order and Family. Additionally, the table comprised essential information such as Usage category, Supplementary Information, and Relative Frequency of Citations (RFCs; Table 1).

Interview and guided tour structuring and analysis strictly adhered to content analysis methodology principles (Osuagwu 2020). Analysis categories were derived from an iterative process involving thorough scrutiny of transcribed responses (Tunison 2023). These categories were thoughtfully compiled into a table using Microsoft Excel 2019 software (Table 1), encompassing a spectrum of Guarani-Kaiowá people’s biocultural memories, encapsulating facets including medicinal, dietary, constructional, mystical, crafts, and fuel-related aspects.

Under the medicinal and alimentary categories, responses related to plants and animals with medicinal and dietary importance were grouped, respectively. In the construction and fuel categories, responses concerning trees used in building houses, tools, and infrastructure, and those used as fuel, respectively, were included. In the mystical category, animals and plants associated with predictive and mystical aspects were listed. Finally, under the crafts category, relevant plants and animals for crafting purposes were grouped. Additional information included medicinal indications, parts used, and other relevant details.

To enhance ethnospecies’ biological classification accuracy, attempts were made to confirm their taxonomic status by collecting plant specimens during guided tours for verification at the botany laboratory of the Federal University of Grande Dourados. Logistical constraints hindered real-time validation, prompting integration of audiovisual aids. Images and videos illustrating local flora and fauna, derived from the Taxonomic Catalog of Brazilian Fauna and List of Brazilian Flora 2020, were used for plant specimens. The taxonomic classification of plants followed the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: (APG et al. 2016). For animal species, resources from the Zoological Collection of the Federal University of Mato Grosso do Sul were utilized. These visual aids facilitated verification and establishment of associations between each ethnospecies and its respective taxonomic entity.

In the data analysis phase, the study employed RFC as a descriptive and illustrative tool for measuring cultural significance. RFC was calculated using the formula: RFC = FC/N, where FC represents the Frequency of Citation (the number of participants mentioning the utilization of a species), and N denotes the total number of participants surveyed. This measure ranges from 0 (when no participants mentioned the species) to 1 (when all participants referred to the species), offering insights into the prevalence and cultural importance associated with each species (Albuquerque et al. 2014).

Additionally, species were evaluated concerning their threat level based on the Red List of Threatened Species (IUCN 2024). Our study primarily emphasizes presenting data in a unified and coherent manner, focusing on a descriptive presentation rather than comparative analysis between the two study areas.

With regard to legal authorizations to conduct research in indigenous territories, the decision to adopt the autonomous protocol of the Guarani-Kaiowá people ensured agreement and permissions for this study, grounded in critical contextual considerations, including Convention 169 of the International Labour Organization. Importantly, two of the authors belong to the indigenous community involved in this research, fostering an intimate connection with the community and ensuring that the study was conducted respectfully, ethically, and in alignment with community values and participatory decision-making processes. Community authorship and co-authorship were maintained throughout all stages of the research, from its inception to the final discussion.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Cataloging flora and fauna memories within the Guarani-Kaiowá people

Our study has unveiled a rich tapestry of ethnospecies intricately interwoven with the social-ecological fabric shaped by shamans and traditional knowledge holders within the Guarani-Kaiowá community in the research area. Employing methodologies, including interviews and guided tours, we systematically documented and categorized 33 ethnospecies of flora and 17 of fauna (see Table 1).

Among the flora, we cataloged 14 orders, 23 families, and 33 ethnospecies. Noteworthy among these were Fabales (n = 7), Sapindales (n = 5), and Malpighiales (n = 4) as the most prevalent orders. Of significance, a majority of the cited plants exhibited an arboreal life form (n = 24), with Acrocomia aculeata identified as a palm, and Coix lacryma-jobi noted as the only herbaceous species cited, although it is naturalized rather than native to the region.

Distinctly, species such as Cordia americana, Pouteria ramiflora, Anadenanthera peregrina, Croton floribundus, and Eugenia florida displayed diverse categorizations, cited within three distinct categories each. An analysis of RFC underscored the paramount importance of Copaifera langsdorffii, Campomanesia xanthocarpa, Eugenia florida, Cabralea canjerana, and Cedrela fissilis within the biocultural memory of the Guarani-Kaiowá people, being universally referenced by all study participants.

Vertebrates predominated the references in the animal kingdom, comprising the majority, while invertebrates represented only three out of the 11 identified orders. The dataset encompassed 15 animal families. Species such as Tayassu pecari, Pitangus sulphuratus, Tapirus terrestris, Myrmecophaga tridactyla, and Eunectes murinus exhibited substantial breadth across different categories, being referenced in two distinct classifications each. Notably, Tapirus terrestris, Myrmecophaga tridactyla, and Ara chloropterus were mentioned by 80% of participants, resulting in an RFC of 0.8.

Regarding threat levels, among plant species, Tabebuia roseoalba is listed as Near Threatened, while Cedrela fissilis is categorized as Vulnerable. Among animals, Blastocerus dichotomus, Tayassu pecari, Tapirus terrestris, and Myrmecophaga tridactyla are classified as Vulnerable. Additionally, Balfourodendron riedelianum is listed as Endangered, and Amazona aestiva is categorized as Near Threatened

The exploration of biocultural memories among indigenous communities, as evidenced in the study of the Guarani-Kaiowá community, unveils an intricate web of knowledge and interaction with biodiversity. The cataloging of flora and fauna species, combined with the analysis of RFC, offers significant insights into the biological richness associated with the collective memories of these communities.

According to the theory of cultural keystone species, certain plant species play crucial roles in resource acquisition and fulfill psycho-socio-cultural functions within specific cultures. These species possess high use-value, are named and have associated terminology in a native language, and demonstrate a high degree of species irreplaceability, thereby qualifying as cultural keystone species. Developed as a framework, this theory aims to elucidate the interactions between human societies and species indispensable to their culture. A comprehensive understanding of the dynamic roles of cultural keystone species in both ecosystem processes and cultural societies is indispensable for advancing biocultural conservation efforts (Coe and Gaoue 2020).

The findings highlighted in this study emphasize the significance of incorporating biocultural memories as a complementary approach alongside conventional methods for biodiversity conservation. Traditional conservation strategies predominantly rely on scientific data and standardized measures. However, insights from biocultural memories provide a distinctive viewpoint by offering in-depth, context-specific knowledge concerning local species and ecosystems. This approach contributes to a deeper comprehension of biodiversity dynamics, echoing similar conclusions found in the research conducted by Monterrubio-Solís et al. (2023) with Indigenous communities residing in the remote regions of Latin America.

Biocultural narratives among Guarani-Kaiowá shamans and traditional knowledge holders

Insights drawn from interviews with shamans and traditional knowledge holders paint a picture of the historical Guarani-Kaiowá territory as once flourishing with thriving forests boasting abundant biodiversity. This region was characterized by a rich tapestry of trees, fauna, rivers, and waterfalls, but over time, has experienced a gradual decline. According to the narratives shared by these esteemed individuals, the degradation of the forest primarily arose from the actions of non-indigenous individuals, whose self-serving behaviors contradicted communal values, leading to the depletion of natural resources.

Ñande Ru Eduardo, a respected spiritual leader, underscores the diverse ecosystems within the Guarani-Kaiowá territory. He emphasizes the significance of the savanna, highlighting its intrinsic richness harboring an assortment of native medicinal and fruit-bearing plants. Additionally, he emphasizes the marshland’s vital role as a repository of traditional remedies. Furthermore, he accentuates the forest’s pivotal role, recognizing it as an ecosystem inhabited by revered beings such as the jaguar, the monkey, and other animals of spiritual and cosmological significance:

All beings and every forest have their importance. The “ka'ati,” known as the cerrado, also holds great richness. It contains plants, remedies, and fruits. The marshland, even more important as a remedy, is referred to as “porã rupa,” the bed of remedies.

However, the “ka'aguy,” the forests, hold the utmost importance for the Kaiowá people. It is akin to the president’s palace. Within the forest reside powerful beings such as the jaguar, the monkey, and other highly active, strong, and influential animals, bestowing us with spiritual strength. However, it is crucial to note that these beings are not solitary; each of them has its guardian, referred to as “jara.” The jara serves as the owner of all life forms and must be respected for our well-being. (Ñande Ru Eduardo, personal communication, 2020).

The biocultural memory revealed in this research data unveils the entwinement of the historical trajectory and geographic context of the Guarani-Kaiowá people with the Atlantic Forest ecosystems. Their self-identification as “ka'aguy ygua” or “ka'aguy rehegua,” translating to “people of the forest” in the Guarani-Kaiowá language, signifies a deeply integrated relationship. Beyond being merely a habitat, the forest embodies a pivotal domain ensuring ecosystemic balance and territorial integrity for this indigenous community.

Narratives shared by shamans and traditional knowledge holders offer insights into ancestral territories, fauna, flora, and the intricate network of social-ecological, cosmological, and territorial relationships. Central to Guarani-Kaiowá beliefs is the concept that each species and place possesses a distinct owner and guardian known as jara. The forest, a complex ecosystem comprising multiple tiers and various political-spiritual agents, contributes to a delicate equilibrium.

The interviews underscore that the Guarani-Kaiowá’s forest management integrates indigenous science, ancestral wisdom, and connections with spiritual jara, guardians that preserve biodiversity and provide enlightenment. Their universe is a network of interconnected realms, each associated with specific jara, delineating their cosmology.

Research conducted among the Guarani-Kaiowá underscores the significance of their forest, known as ka’aguy, intertwining traditional practices and connections with jara. These relationships extend beyond conventional ownership, with jara entities bearing responsibilities for safeguarding all life forms and spaces (Coloma et al. 2006, Normann 2022, Pavão and Gisloti 2023, Pedro et al. 2023). This realm intricately weaves together traditional practices and harmonious connections with jara, revealing relationships that transcend traditional ownership boundaries (Pavão and Gisloti 2023, Pedro et al. 2023).

Interviews unveiled narratives that depicted the historical Kaiowá territory as once flourishing with dense forests and abundant biodiversity. This area boasted a diverse array of trees, animals, rivers, and waterfalls, which gradually diminished over time. Spiritual leaders attributed the degradation of the forest primarily to the selfish actions of nonindigenous individuals, whose lifestyle contradicted collective values, resulting in the devaluation of natural resources. Ñande Sy Adelaide, amidst extensive deforestation, highlighted remnants within the village region pivotal to the Guarani-Kaiowá way of life. She considered these remnants emblematic of Guarani-Kaiowá sustainability, acknowledging the forest’s vital contributions devoid of covetous intent and recognizing it as the nurturing force sustaining and providing refuge for her people:

Much of the once abundant forest here has disappeared. They ruthlessly cleared everything in their path to sell timber and establish plantations. They ravaged almost everything. There used to be abundant forests here.

However, even today, the landscape has altered from what it once was. Previously heavily deforested and unsightly areas now display renewed greenery and vitality, welcoming back some animals unseen before. Forests are fountains of life, but the karaí fail to appreciate this essence, resulting in their merciless deforestation and extermination of plants and animals. (Ñande Sy Adelaide, personal communication, 2020).

The oral histories shared by traditional Guarani-Kaiowá leaders vividly portray the repercussions of colonialism on their indigenous community. These findings underscore the detrimental impact of colonial occupation and subsequent policies, causing disruptions encompassing land expropriation, biodiversity depletion, and social-ecological vulnerabilities (Mondardo 2022). Contemporary state territorial strategies and neo-extractivist initiatives compound these challenges, posing severe threats to the territorial integrity of the Kaiowá people (Ioris 2020).

In her reflections, Ñande Sy Amélia articulates the preservation of the forest and local biodiversity as paramount for sustaining the Guarani-Kaiowá way of life. She underscores the significance of honoring traditional knowledge concerning the region’s fauna and flora.

The forest’s integrity stands as a vital endeavor for the community, providing essential elements for existence, well-being, health, and mental clarity. Disruptions in the forest equilibrium affect children and adolescents while imparting invaluable wisdom accessible to select individuals, emphasizing the uniqueness of understanding the forest’s language possessed by Ñande Sy and Ñande Ru (Ñande Sy Amélia, personal communication, 2020).

This analysis explores multiple dimensions of the Guarani-Kaiowá people’s resilience in confronting challenges presented by the state, large landholdings, and agribusiness. Highlighting the community’s strategies across diverse territorial contexts—such as indigenous reserves, demarcated lands, and tekoha retakes—this collective effort is fundamentally rooted in preserving socio-territorial memories, promoting social-ecological restoration, and sustaining traditional management practices.

These initiatives have led to the emergence of autonomous territorialities that challenge tekoha fragmentation, land monopolization, and biodiversity loss induced by agribusiness (Pavão and Gisloti 2023). This ongoing resistance represents a cosmo-political force encompassing diverse entities and perspectives, aligned with the concept of cosmo-politics by Stengers (2010) and Latour (2018). It signifies a convergence of multiple worlds and entities, acknowledging divergent agencies (Sztutman 2020).

The intricate interplay among politics, ecology, and cosmology is palpable within the Guarani-Kaiowá’s relationship with the forest. This bond extends beyond geographical spaces, emphasizing the importance of enabling specific occupation patterns that foster a profound territorial relationship. This connection mirrors a symbiosis rooted in their narratives, ceremonial practices, and ecological paradigms.

In the broader context of political ecology, this paper strengthens the concept of “Guarani-Kaiowá cosmo-political ecology” (Pavão and Gisloti 2023). It delves into territorial, social-ecological, and cosmological relationships, recognizing their inseparability and the varied agencies involved across different elements of the cosmos.

This deeply embedded native wisdom, comprising cosmo-vision and biocultural memory, stands as a crucial axis in counter-colonization (Bispo dos Santos 2015) efforts. It plays a vital role in restoring biocultural diversity and creating balanced traditional territories.

FINAL CONSIDERATIONS

In conclusion, our study’s documentation of 50 ethnospecies of flora and fauna within the Guarani-Kaiowá community’s territory offers insights for biodiversity conservation. This investigation revealed the intricate social-ecological interdependence deeply rooted in this ecosystem. Notable findings include the prevalence of arboreal plant orders and the diversity of species, signifying the ecosystem’s complexity. Furthermore, our RFC analysis highlighted culturally significant species within the Guarani-Kaiowá community, emphasizing the urgent need for their conservation.

The assessment of threat levels for distinct plant and animal species, categorized as Near Threatened, Vulnerable, or Endangered, underscores the pressing requirement for conservation efforts to safeguard the biodiversity crucial to the Guarani-Kaiowá people’s cultural and ecological heritage within this territory.

Additionally, our interviews unveiled the interconnectedness the Guarani-Kaiowá people maintain with forest ecosystems. Their worldview perceives human beings as part of a larger community, deeply intertwined with flora, fauna, and other living entities. These components are intrinsic to the territory, shaping the multifaceted nature of the land and forming the cosmo-political relations of this community.

Our observations underscore the substantial complexity of Guarani-Kaiowá knowledge, integrating material, cosmological, and spiritual elements. The biocultural memories shared in this research offer invaluable insights into the ecosystems inhabited by the Guarani-Kaiowá. These intricate relationships highlight the forest’s spiritual aspects and its guardianship of diverse orders and classifications. Here, ecology intertwines with historical, social-ecological, geographical, and cosmological references.

The territory of the Guarani-Kaiowá bears the marks of environmental destruction stemming from the pervasive agribusiness model, affecting various life forms and affecting the community’s way of life. Understanding the processes that have harmed socio-biodiversity and territories, embracing aspects of political ecology, is paramount in devising effective strategies for the restoration and conservation of social-ecological-cosmological systems.

Consequently, we advocate that ecological restoration initiatives should stem from the cosmological, socio-territorial, and ecological relations of this people. The quest for the reclamation of territories is pivotal in safeguarding and restoring forests within these areas.

This work aims to delve deeper into pivotal aspects concerning the elements constituting the Atlantic Forest for the Guarani-Kaiowá people, thereby contributing to the formulation of territorial self-management strategies and environmental restoration efforts. These efforts should be conceived, coordinated, and executed based on the cosmo-biogeographical understanding of this community, enriching the scientific discourse on biodiversity conservation.

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