Research

INTRODUCTION

Kenya hosts a large number of plant and animal species (Gorenflo et al. 2012, Gereau et al. 2016), and hosts various global biodiversity hotspots (Mittermeier et al. 2011). In addition, this region is also characterized by high cultural diversity, driven by an accumulation of different ethnic groups (Fearon 2003). However, increasing demographic pressure, rising living standards, and the need for more land for crop farming have caused the destruction of many natural habitats, leading to fragmented forest patches. Today, remnants of intact ecosystems represent small and geographically isolated patches (Laurance and Bierregaard 1997, Fungomeli et al. 2020).

The Mijikenda sacred forests in coastal Kenya represent small patches of East African coastal forests and host the legacy of the once widely distributed East African coastal forests (Fungomeli et al. 2020). Despite the limited size of these forests and their strong geographical isolation, they still harbor considerably high plant and animal diversity (Wass 1995, Fungomeli et al. 2020). In total, about 145 forest patches still exist in the coastal region of Kenya, including the sacred Mijikenda Kaya forests (Robertson and Luke 1993, Githito et al. 2003, 2016, Shepeard-Walwyn 2014). These sacred forests also stand for a high level of cultural diversity and are spiritual places, as sites of worship for the Indigenous people (Mutta et al. 2008, Parrotta and Trosper 2012, Habel et al. 2023).

In addition to being biological and cultural hotspots, these forest remnants also provide a large variety of ecosystem services to the local people, such as wood and medicinal plants, carbon storage, oxygen production, and positively influencing the local hydrology (Kibet and Nyamweru 2008, Arowolo et al. 2018, Børresen et al. 2023). However, most Kaya forests suffer from severe deforestation and overexploitation of forest resources (Parrotta and Trosper 2012, Fungomeli et al. 2020). Younger people show little interest in the traditional cultural life and subsequently in the preservation of these forests as habitat and a place for spiritual practices and biodiversity conservation. There is a shift in perspective across generations from spiritual significance, which is more relevant to older people, toward short-term profit from the use of natural resources by the younger generation (Paraskeva-Hadjachambi et al. 2012). Furthermore, a comparatively high level of poverty and the increasing demand for wood for the construction of houses and as an energy source drive deforestation (Waswa et al. 2020).

The unique biological and cultural diversity of the sacred Mijikenda forest patches as well as the various ecosystem services they provide are not efficiently communicated to most of the local people. However, environmental education might help emphasize the relevance of these forests as global biological and cultural hotspots and as sources of various ecosystem services, thereby enabling the entire landscape to be conserved (Angelstam et al. 2023). Previous studies have shown that environmental education positively shapes attitudes toward nature and ecosystem services (Børresen et al. 2023). Officially, environmental education is also included in the Kenyan school curriculum to foster positive attitudes toward nature and wildlife (Mutisya et al. 2013, Shauri et al. 2024). Furthermore, in other parts of Africa where environmental and nature-based education are integrated into the school curriculum, knowledge has been successfully disseminated from students to society (Børresen et al. 2023).

In this study, we investigate whether and to what extent environmental education is part of the school curriculum in coastal Kenya. We analyze whether environmental education topics depend on the teacher, whether there are differences with respect to age and gender, and what role the teacher’s education and background play. We developed a standardized questionnaire and conducted almost 50 structured interviews with teachers from 10 primary and secondary schools located around a sacred Mijikenda forest, Kaya Kambe, no further than 3.5 km (in mean 1.8 km) from the forest. Based on the responses received, we addressed the following research questions:

1. Is environmental education integrated in the school curriculum and actively taught in the schools around Kaya Kambe?
2. To what extent do teachers’ own education and experience in environmental education play a role in shaping the curriculum and raising awareness of the relevance of environmental conservation?
3. Is there local reference to the sacred forest Kaya Kambe, its biological and cultural significance, and the benefits of intact ecosystems in school lessons?

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Study area

The study was conducted around Kaya Kambe forest, 20 km north of Mombasa town, in coastal Kenya (Fig. 1). Kaya Kambe covers an area of 75 ha of original East African coastal forest, and still harbors a large diversity of plant and animal species (Robertson and Luke 1993, Fungomeli et al. 2020, Habel et al. 2024, Schwarz et al. 2024). However, this forest suffers from the heavy use and exploitation of forest resources. This leads to a significant reduction in natural regeneration, with negative effects on the persistence of typical forest species (Habel et al. 2023). The Kaya Kambe forest is surrounded by agricultural land (for subsistence farming), tree plantations (mainly eucalyptus), orchards (mainly mango trees and coconut palm trees), and settlement area. Coastal Kenya is characterized by comparatively high demographic pressure (Urmersbach 2024), which is particularly high in the conurbation around Mombasa, where the village of Kambe is located (Urmersbach 2024). The village of Kambe borders the forest and a quarry to the east (see Fig. 1). There are several dwellings in the Kaya for the performance of rites. “Kaya” means home in the Mijikenda language and oral traditions tell that their ancestors once lived in hidden forest villages as protection from hostile tribes (Robertson and Luke 1993, Nyamweru et al. 2008). Village elders play an important role in the cultural identity and integrity transmitted by the Kayas. These roles are increasingly undermined (Kibet and Nyamweru 2008, Habel et al. 2023). Until now, the management and protection of the forest have been carried out by Kaya elders, with the Kenyan Forest Service and the local chief having executive authority. The forest remains of high cultural relevance to the local Mijikenda people today (Fungomeli et al. 2020).

We selected 10 schools around the Kaya Kambe forest (in two sub-counties, Kaloleni and Rabai), namely primary schools (Maereni, Pangani, and Ribe) and secondary schools (Kambe, Ribe Girls, Ribe Boys, Mwandodo, Maandani, St. John’s Girls, and Chanaganbe). The schools are located in close proximity to the forest, as we are also investigating in this study whether the proximity of the forest plays a central role in the school’s environmental education program.

Collection of data

We interviewed 15 teachers from the three primary schools and 35 teachers from the seven secondary schools during February and March 2022. In total, 47 teachers (24 male, 22 female, one without gender declaration) returned the questionnaires. Efforts were made to ensure a balance of male and female teachers. In addition, only teachers who teach subjects in which environmental education and the Kayas may potentially play a role were surveyed (e.g., biology, science, history, geography, religious studies, and social studies). To ensure the reliability and effectiveness of the questionnaire, a short pre-testing and improvement process was conducted. We received approval from the partnering university (Pwani University) ethics committee to carry out this study. All participants gave informed consent to participate in the study (see the first section of our questionnaire).

The questionnaire was structured in six thematic sections, as follows: socio-demographic background of the teachers, teaching of resource use, ecological knowledge, nature conservation, cultural heritage including Indigenous knowledge, and an evaluation of the importance of teaching these issues (Table 1). The socio-demographic background focused on the teacher’s gender, age, religion, and level of education with respect to environmental issues. A specific set of questions were centered on the Kaya Forest (Appendix 2, Tables B2, B3). The complete questionnaire is available in Appendix 1 and the questions codes related to the specific research topics are given in Table 1.

Data analysis

Answers to the five topics of Table 1 were Likert scale–coded from 1 (not taught, no importance) to 5 (intensively taught, high importance). The code 6 denotes “no answer.” Metadata for all questions are contained in Appendix 1. Answers to specific research questions were not independent. Therefore, we combined questions into categories given in Table 1 and calculated for these combinations of answers the arithmetic means and parametric standard errors. We used ordinary least squares linearly regression and fixed effects one- and two-way parametric ANOVA to assess relationships between a teacher’s own education and their teaching activity and differences in average answers with respect to a teacher’s gender, age, and education.

RESULTS

The level of knowledge in environmental education differed strongly among the teachers (answers code ranged between 1 and 5), irrespective of school type, gender, and age (Table 1). Two-way ANOVA did not return significant differences at the 5% error level between gender and age classes with respect to educational and teaching ranks (not shown). Environmental education (i.e., ecology, nature conservation, resource use, cultural heritage) played only a minor role in teaching (Fig. 2). In all four categories the number of teachers who indicated more environmental issues were lower than the number of those who indicated having knowledge in environmental education (Fig. 2a, b). A total of 33 (66%) of teachers were educated about the value and importance of Kayas, but only 16 (32%) of them teach topics related with Kayas at least at an intermediate level (rank 4 or 5) (Fig. 2c).

Teachers have classes on very different subjects and topics (Appendix 2, Table B1). In general, teachers marked their own environmental issues lower than their background knowledge in issues related to the environment and conservation (Table 2). This trend was independent of a teacher’s gender and age, school level and subject. In 39 of the 40 pairwise comparisons of a teacher’s education and teaching, the average teaching ranks were lower than the average educational ranks. This trend was most pronounced with respect to teaching of cultural heritage, with the average teaching rank being all but one time (cultural heritage, females) more than one rank lower (Table 2). Older teachers (> 38 years) marked a higher level of environmental and cultural education than their younger counterparts, whereas this difference vanished with respect to teaching (Table 2). Teacher’s education and teaching appeared to be comparatively more intense in primary than in secondary schools (Table 2).

A teacher’s education and their own teaching levels were significantly positively correlated, except for the nature conservation category (Fig. 3). Strong correlations between a teacher’s own education and their teaching occurred in the topics on endangered plants and animals, ecosystem functioning and carbon sink/source dynamics (Appendix 2, Figure B1). Nearly all teachers highlighted the importance of environmental knowledge and education (Fig. 2d).

Teaching the ecological, economic, and cultural importance of sacred Kaya forest sites was highlighted by many teachers (Fig. 2c). Teachers particularly highlighted their value as refugia for endangered plant and animal species and as places of cultural tradition (Table B3). However, teaching was ranked at an intermediate level (Fig. 4, ranks < 4) by those teachers who highlighted the value of Kaya forests and at a low level (ranks < 3) by teachers who find Kayas less important. The ecological value appeared to be of lower importance than economic and cultural values (Fig. 4).

DISCUSSION

Our study shows that environmental education is rather underrepresented in most lessons of the primary and secondary schools in our study area around Kaya Kambe forest. Topics related to the environment and biodiversity conservation are mainly covered in geography, science, and biology lessons, whereas in other subjects these topics are completely absent. Environmental or sustainability education is relevant for all subjects and is therefore a relevant cross-sectional dimension for all subjects. In many countries of the Global North there are increasing efforts to integrate environmental and sustainability education into curricula, with that teaching taking place across all subjects, not exclusively in the field of natural sciences (Raphaely and Marinova 2013). Our findings are consistent with previous work that emphasizes the relevance of disciplines (e.g., cultural and ecological perspectives; Uwajeh and Ezennia 2018). It is crucial to significantly strengthen environmental education in schools within this study area. Environmental education in schools is of central relevance for raising awareness of nature and its protection (Borchers et al. 2014). Environmental education has a positive impact on personal awareness and prioritization of environmental issues (Ardoin et al. 2020). Otto and Pensini (2017) suggest a nature-based approach, combining environmental knowledge acquisition with fostering intrinsic drivers such as connectedness to nature. Similarly, Ardoin et al. (2020) foster the development of attitudes, values, knowledge, and skills that empower individuals and communities for collaborative environmental action.

The integration of environmental education in the classroom varies greatly among individual teachers, independent of gender and age. However, there is a trend that older teachers have more knowledge of nature and the environment, as well as the ecological and cultural relevance of Kayas, compared to young teachers. This could be related to a stronger personal connection with the local community and their rites and traditions, with which these teachers identify. The effect might be a more conscious and sustainable use of resources (including habitats) (time and temporalities as elements of environments; Campbell and Timmerman 2007). However, local social norms are being increasingly replaced by global values (Zalli 2024). Even when environmental topics are covered in classes, they remain rather general and theoretical (e.g., agroforestry, ecology, pollution, conservation of soil), while locally specific topics related to Kaya forests or the conservation of local flora and fauna become neglected.

Teachers, regardless of the subject they teach, consistently interpreted Kaya forests as sacred sites for the Mijikenda community. The prevalence of the spiritual theme reinforces the sacredness of Kayas in the eyes of teachers. However, the ecological functions of Kayas, particularly their role in biodiversity conservation and sustainable ecosystems, received little attention in the teachers’ responses. Consequently, it is crucial to sensitize teachers to the importance of Kayas for biodiversity, ecological processes, and ecosystem services (Fungomeli et al. 2020) to ensure long-term interest in nature and resource conservation, as well as the safeguarding of human livelihoods (Gamfeld et al. 2008, Abbasi et al. 2023). An opportunity to overcome this gap is by linking ecological facts and more science-oriented views with Indigenous knowledge (cf. Lipe 2023).

Our results clearly show that a teacher’s knowledge and the education they have received in school and training strongly influence their teaching content, including environmental education. Furthermore, our results indicate that teachers with a strong personal relation with subjects of Kaya culture and conservation are more likely to include these in their teaching. This not only pertains to environmental education topics in general but also specifically to communicating the ecological and cultural relevance of the Kayas. Here, too, it became clear that teachers who have a personal relation with and emotions about Kayas and knowledge about them integrate them into their teaching. This correlation between educational background and positive attitudes toward participation in environmental activities highlights the potential of environmental education as an intervention in shaping individuals’ perspectives on the environment. This supports the hypothesis that teaching about the Kayas could foster understanding of their importance, ultimately leading to a well-informed population. Such a population is more likely to prioritize and actively participate in initiatives addressing environmental challenges, thereby protecting the Kayas.

Our results provide evidence that environmental education tends to be underrepresented in the schools visited. Thus, there is a need for targeted interventions at the policy level. The guidelines (such as adding environmental education to teacher training, offering additional training to in-service teachers, and providing teachers with tools) could emphasize the importance of teaching environmental education, including local aspects, such as Kaya forests. Educational institutions, therefore, have a crucial role in implementing policy recommendations that integrate strengthened environmental education guidelines into the national curriculum. The Kenyan curriculum promotes environmental activities from pre-primary up to middle level school (Kenya Institute of Curriculum Development 2019, Shauri et al. 2024). Environmental education must play a crucial role in primary school, especially since a significant number of Kenyan residents only complete primary school (Statista 2020).

In secondary schools, topics mainly related with agriculture are promoted in the framework of environmental education (Kenya Institute of Curriculum Development 2019). However, it is crucial to include many more environmental topics as a fixed part of the curriculum in primary, middle, and secondary schools, such as biodiversity and its conservation, trees and their functions, and ecosystems and their services and disservices for nature, climate change, among others. Research has shown that environmental education improves knowledge and skills in these respective fields, which in turn can change attitudes and lead to changes in behavior (Wetering et al. 2022). Therefore, environmental education should be a crucial part of every school curriculum in Kenya to create awareness of nature (Kenya Institute of Curriculum Development 2019). Especially for schools of coastal Kenya, a combination of the following two perspectives would be very advisable: highlighting (1) the relevance of Kaya forests from a natural science perspective, including the long-term gains from ecosystem services (Burgess and Clake 2000, Fungomeli et al. 2020); and (2) Kaya forest protection as being a sacred site, taking into account the value of Indigenous knowledge, culture, and social networking (Lipe 2023). In order to promote emotional bonds, joint-school lessons with society elders in Kaya forests might be a valuable experience beyond common narratives (see Lotz-Sisitka et al. 2015, 2017, Mandikonza and Lotz-Sisitka 2016, da Costa 2021).

Finally, it is critical to advance environmental education and to promote inter- and transdisciplinary approaches that involve teachers from various subjects into the educational framework. The potential for environmental organizations to collaborate with schools in enhancing environmental education initiatives can provide new perspectives on the topic, offering expertise to support teachers in conveying the significance of biodiversity and environmental conservation. Encouraging collaboration between schools, local communities, environmental organizations, and research organizations is proposed to create a holistic approach to environmental education (The Whole School Approach; A. E. J. Wals et al. 2024). Additionally, local engagement in fostering environmental awareness beyond the classroom could be promoted. Community members, especially those residing near Kayas, such as the Mijikenda, can actively participate in educational initiatives, contributing traditional knowledge and practices that enhance the cultural context of environmental education and the Kayas.

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