Research

INTRODUCTION

Small-scale fisheries (SSF) in low and middle-income countries lag significantly behind in access to trustworthy, consistent, and easily available data, which is needed to promote agency and sovereignty (Development Gateway 2023). Currently, there is a lack of available data on who is reporting and how data is being used (Pita et al. 2019). Communities have become testing grounds for technology, with little control over how the resulting data is used, maintained, and evaluated (Tilley and Roscher 2020), leading fishers to value transparent and fair data sharing (Fujita et al. 2018). Given that mobile apps are perceived as transparent and fair, there is the potential for increased adoption of apps in fisheries (Bradley et al. 2019). As mobile apps become more integrated into data collection and management in SSF, it is essential to ensure that digital tools like mobile apps capture and reflect the contributions of all fish workers, including women, for equitable and inclusive fisheries management.

Women’s role in fisheries is often not recognized (Mills et al. 2011, Kleiber et al. 2017), and they have limited decision-making power and access to or control over resources (Tilley et al. 2021). The contribution of women fishers and fishworkers in SSF is substantial (Harper 2019), but is often omitted from statistics and decision making, which impacts the ability to manage resources effectively (Tilley et al. 2020). This research gap makes it pertinent to study whether mobile apps could assist in recognizing and accounting for women and their role in SSF. Based on recent reviews (Kleiber et al. 2015, Frangoudes et al. 2019, Tilley et al. 2021), there is a widespread trend in SSF toward differentiating space and resource use based on gender. Different environmental impacts are generated because men and women use coastal and marine resources differently (de la Torre-Castro et al. 2017). Gender issues have recently come to light in SSF within a diversity of areas such as empowerment and agency (Onyango and Jentoft 2011, Torre et al. 2019, Freeman and Svels 2022), well-being approaches (Weeratunge et al. 2014, Szaboova et al. 2022, Drury O’Neill et al. 2024b), women’s contribution in fisheries (Harper et al. 2013, Fröcklin et al. 2014, Kleiber et al. 2015, Harper 2019, Harper et al. 2023), recognition of the gendered aspects of knowledge (Iniesta-Arandia et al. 2015, Salmi and Sonck-Rautio 2018), the need for policy inclusion and way of life considerations (Santos 2015, Koralagama et al. 2017, Mangubhai and Lawless 2021), women entering fish trade arenas (Fröcklin et al. 2013, Gopal et al. 2020), and gender integration in coastal management (Diamond et al. 2003, Szymkowiak and Rhodes-Reese 2020). Despite these initiatives, the management discourse continues to employ terms like “stakeholders” and “appropriators,” or “fishermen” and “middlemen,” which categorize resource users broadly. These phrases are typically linked to the actions and characteristics of males and conceal the contributions of women (de la Torre-Castro et al. 2017).

In the context of SSF, traditional gender roles often dictate women’s roles as supportive rather than central to fishing activities (Lentisco and Lee 2015, Monfort 2015). Gender theory acknowledges the unequal distribution of power and resources between men and women in many societies (Carter 2014), which can influence trust and group identity dynamics (Danyliuk et al. 2022). Identities in fisheries are shaped by traditional ideas, such as the perception of women as housewives, whereas male identities are strongly linked to reinforced concepts of masculinity (de la Torre-Castro et al. 2017). Trust and group identity may be constructed around masculine norms and values in male-dominated contexts, with men holding greater authority and influence within groups. This can create barriers for women to fully participate in and contribute to group identity formation, leading to feelings of exclusion or marginalization (Kleiber et al. 2017). Trust and reciprocity-based social norms have been recognized as key variables in overcoming principal-agent or collective action problems (Ostrom 1990). This also holds true in SSF, where it has been shown that the different levels of trust in a community and the heterogeneity of fishers (e.g., gender and fishing roles) matter for sustainable fisheries outcomes and collective action (Basurto et al. 2013, Lindkvist et al. 2017, Drury O’Neill et al. 2024a,b). The use of “inclusive management,” which incorporates gender and women’s participation, may offer a solution to coastal resource management (de la Torre-Castro 2019). Mobile apps can provide women with access to information, resources, and networks that enhance their visibility, voice, and agency within SSF (Organization for Economic Development and Cooperation (OECD) 2018).

Of particular interest in fisheries from a gender, equity, and conservation perspective are marine reserves (Ban et al. 2019). Marine reserves are one of the main conservation strategies in fisheries that provide a refuge for targeted species and create a positive spillover effect that benefits fisheries. Yet struggles with non-compliance, gender-related equity, and fairness issues are common (Bergseth et al. 2023, Drury O’Neill et al. 2024a).

This research aims to explore if and how mobile apps enhance women’s visibility in SSF. The study will examine how apps shape social identities and power dynamics, and examine their impact on compliance with marine reserves, by answering the following research questions: (1) Can mobile apps be used as a digital tool to increase the visibility of women’s contributions to Mexican SSF, and how? (2) Can apps build trust and lead to increased compliance with marine reserves, especially among the male fishers in the community, and how? and (3) Does the use of mobile apps lead to stronger collective action in Mexican SSF, and how? Using Q-methodology, we examine the impact of PescaData, an app developed by the NGO Comunidad y Biodiversidad (COBI) in Mexico (pescadata.org). We further discuss the implications of our findings for the future of apps as tools for increasing women’s visibility, trust, and collective action in the pursuit of sustainable fisheries.

METHODS

Case study context

Comunidad y Biodiversidad (COBI) is a non-governmental organization founded in 1999 by young people interested in marine life and reducing poverty levels (cobi.org.mx). It promotes marine conservation and sustainable fisheries management through its work with Mexico’s coastal communities (Sanchez 2015). With a strong participation strategy, COBI encourages future generations of fishers to co-design solutions for resilient communities and healthy oceans (COBI and PescaData 2025).

In 2020, COBI launched the PescaData mobile app as part of the Innovación Azul (Blue Innovation) digital ecosystem (pescadata.org). With over 2500 registered users across Mexico, PescaData is a free and interactive mobile app with three main functions. One part of the app helps fishers record logbooks to keep more accurate control of target species and access the resulting data. Most importantly, these data are owned by the fishers. Second, the app has a section where any user can share solutions that can reach other fishers across different coastal communities through anyone who is using the app. In addition, a third use is that fishers are able to access “The Market” interface in the app to buy and sell products, share knowledge, and create communication forums (Precoma de la Mora et al. 2020). This research focuses on the first two parts of the app.

The demographic composition of PescaData users reflects the diversity of the Mexican fishing community, encompassing fishers of different ages, genders, and ethnic backgrounds (see Append. 1). Users include fishers, but also those involved in post-processing activities and/or those who take on administrative roles. Approximately 75% of PescaData users are male, with the remaining 25% being female. In terms of age distribution, the majority of PescaData users fall within the 25–45 age range, reflecting the active participation of both younger and middle-aged fishers in adopting mobile technology for fisheries management (pescadata.org). Additionally, as shown in Fig. 1, PescaData users are geographically dispersed, with significant user populations located in coastal regions such as Baja California Sur, Sonora, Quintana Roo, Oaxaca, Nayarit, Colima, Guerrero, Sinaloa, and Yucatan, where SSF play a crucial role in local economies and livelihoods.

Q-methodology

Q-methodology is a way to articulate numerous individual viewpoints into a few “factors” that are believed to represent shared ways of thinking between people (Li 2022). Q is especially appropriate for uncovering points of view and emphasizing differences and similarities between and within groups (Damio 2016). The participants do a Q-sorting exercise that captures the concept that individuals think about ideas in connection to other ideas rather than in isolation. The set of statements, better known as the Q-set, is usually written as expressions of opinions or beliefs on a given topic (Watts and Stenner 2005). The Q-set is drawn from the “concourse,” which is the sum of all things people say or think about the issue being investigated. Ranking the Q-set gives rise to the Q-sorts, which is a cluster of subjectivity representing a shared view (Watts and Stenner 2005).

Drawing on the suitability of Q-methodology according to Brown (1980, 2004), Q was suitable for this study because: (1) the research participants are end users themselves and have reported community solutions using PescaData, and Q is good for articulating their shared visions on how the app has changed their understanding of women’s role in Mexican SSF; and (2) through a careful process of selection, the research participants can mirror the breadth of individuals who are using PescaData.

Q-factor analysis is an inversion of the conventional by-item factor analysis (Stephenson 1965). Q-factor analysis differs from traditional factor analysis by correlating individuals rather than test items, making it a form of by-person factor analysis. If each participant held entirely unique preferences—expressed through their Q-sorts—no meaningful correlations would emerge. However, when significant clusters of correlations are present, they can be factorized to identify shared viewpoints, with individuals aligning to specific factors. Thus, Q-methodology is designed to uncover and describe distinct perspectives within a population, rather than categorizing individuals as in conventional factor analysis (Brown 1980, van Exel and de Graaf 2005, ten Klooster et al. 2008). In studies employing Q-methodology, a small but strategically selected sample is sufficient, as participants are chosen to represent the diversity of opinions within the target population (Brown 1980, 1996). Therefore, Q-analysis as part of Q-methodology does not need large numbers of participants because it can reveal characteristics independent of the distribution of that characteristic relative to other characteristics (Smith 2001, van Exel and de Graaf 2005). It only requires a sufficient number of participants to establish the existence of a factor for purposes of comparing one factor with another (Militello and Benham 2010).

The Q-method steps are summarized in Fig. 2 below and are detailed in the following sub-section.

Discourse identification

The first step of Q-methodology is to gain a good understanding of the discourse and gather all possible information related to the research objective. In this study, the aim was to itemize the full range of subjective perceptions (attitudes and norms) of the fishers who are using the mobile app, PescaData, based on four themes, i.e., trust, collective action, closure areas, and women’s work contributions to Mexican SSF that exists in the studied area. In order to understand the discourse, we used the following methods: analysis of the COBI database, which comprised a collection of community solutions provided by the users of the PescaData app; informal discussions with fishery experts from COBI; and a review of literature on Mexican SSF. This study concluded with 25 statements, where the saturation point was achieved, i.e., when the addition of more statements did not present more opinions (Eden et al. 2005).

Process of identifying statements

Step 1: A single researcher conducted the thematic coding, as the data were obtained from a pre-existing COBI database containing 172 statements on community solutions, collected during field workshops through PescaData, led by COBI. The data were color coded and analyzed using Quirkos qualitative software (Quirkos n.d.) to identify preliminary correlations between the themes. Thematic coding involves identifying predefined themes in the data (Bryman 2016). Of the 172 statements, 133 were extracted, each connected to one or more of the four themes. As codification was conducted by a single researcher, intercoder reliability was not applicable in this step.

Step 2: The Quirkos statement clusters revealed a group of 12 statements under the theme “Trust,” a group of 17 statements under the theme “Closure areas,” a group of 35 statements under the theme “Women’s contribution to SSF,” and a group of 111 statements under the theme “Collective action,” along with overlap statements between and across the four themes. The statement clusters helped to map out the themes that were more or less represented. This approach also enabled the selection of representative statements from each theme, including those with overlaps, allowing for the identification of themes that clustered together and the formulation of relevant statements. Subsequently, this step guided the development of the concourse and unpacked the shared ways of thinking among the fishers to design the Q-set.

Q-set design

Q-set content

This step involved reducing the concourse into a manageable and comprehensive set of statements (Q-set) that the participants would rank during the Q-sorting exercise. A deductive coding technique was used to color code all the statements in the concourse and group them into the four main themes.

Triangulation was applied to determine which subjective perceptions (attitudes and norms) of the fishers under the four themes (trust, collective action, closure areas, and women’s work contributions to Mexican SSF) would be included in the final list (Q-set). This required data to be identified from at least two independent data sources (Bryman 2016). Triangulation was used to strengthen the internal validity of the research design and ensure an inclusive and relevant inventory of fishers’ subjective perceptions. As indicated in Fig. 3, only those statements validated through all three data sources were chosen. If that was not possible, then data from a minimum of two different sources were considered. This concourse development resulted in a total of 37 statements.

Three fishery experts from COBI initially refined the 37 statements to 35. Subsequently, two rounds of pilot studies were conducted with two academics from the Stockholm Resilience Centre and the three COBI fishery experts, resulting in the development of the final Q-set comprising 25 statements, as outlined in Append. 2. The pilots refined the clarity of statements and comprehensiveness of the Q-set and provided feedback on the shape and scale of the distribution, clarity of instructions, and overall experience.

Q-board design

The Q-board in the Q-method software was designed as a quasi-normal, symmetrical distribution with 25 spots (one for each of the 25 statements), as shown in Fig. 4. Participants were asked to rank the statements in order of agreement.

Q-participant selection

Using COBI’s network of fishery actors, a generic purposive sampling was used to identify individuals who are using PescaData in Mexican SSF and would be representative of general opinions of PescaData. The individuals selected to participate were fishery leaders in their communities, came from diverse backgrounds with varying ages, were geographically dispersed, and are representative of the larger group of fishers’ main viewpoints. The study consisted of 10 participants (i.e., four males and six females). Two of the participants were PescaData users outside of COBI’s network.

Q-sort administration

Q-sorting with the research participants was conducted online using Q-method software (Q Method Software n.d.) between 11–20 January 2024, and semi-structured interviews were conducted and recorded on Zoom on three separate interview days (23, 25 January and 1 February 2024). Studies have suggested no apparent difference in the validity or reliability between in-person and online Q-sorts (Reber et al. 2000).

After completing their Q-sorting exercise, the participants were assigned individual interview time slots. There were five rounds of interviews, each with two participants, spread over three interview days. The participants completed their Q-sorting exercise in around 15 min., and the semi-structured interviews took approximately 30 min. per person for each interview round.

The participants were sent a short message (53 words) via WhatsApp before the Q-sorting exercise, as well as a link to the exercise in the Q-method software. After signing the consent form integrated into the Q-method software, the participants completed their Q-sorting exercise. They were instructed to sort the 25 statements into three piles: Agree, Neutral, Disagree. During the interview, the researcher provided the plain language statement, which was translated by an interpreter who was present on Zoom for the interviews. The interpreter provided live translations from English to Spanish and vice versa for both the researcher and the participants. Stockholm Resilience Centre’s ethics committee approved the consent forms and ethical assessment.

After the Q-sorts were generated and analyzed, the semi-structured interviews were structured based on the Q-results, which prompted the participants to reflect on the ranking of their Q-set again. Corresponding questions were asked when they expressed thoughts that were relevant to the study objectives in order to address the research questions.

A semi-structured method was chosen to complement the constructivist epistemology. The semi-structured interview provides the researcher with a more exploratory and open-ended approach, using the Q-set (Watts and Stenner 2005). Furthermore, semi-structured interviews give a level of structuring and standardization across participants while leaving the session open enough to allow for reflective insights and the emergence of an untold narrative (Bryman 2016).

Q-data analysis

From Q-sorts to Q-factor analysis

The ten Q-sorts collected were used to examine whether or not the group had common viewpoints. If opinions generated from the Q-sorts are sufficiently similar, they form clusters, also known as factors. A factor requires the participation of at least two individuals (Watts and Stenner 2005). The analysis was carried out using the online Q-method software (n.d.).

A Spearman correlation was established because the data in Q-sorts is ordinal. According to Alberts and Ankenmann (2001), this provides a standardized measure of the linear relationship between two sets of ranked scores. Secondly, a principal component analysis (PCA) was used because the factors are orthogonal to each other; they are being statistically and linearly independent of one another. Thirdly, a varimax rotation method was used to identify the factors that contributed the most to the study variance.

Accepting a factor

To find the appropriate number of factors, the following criteria were followed: (1) after varimax rotation, at least two Q-sorts should load significantly to that factor at the level of P < 0.05. This meant exceeding ± 0.396 based on the equation for standard error: 1.96*(1/√N), where N = number items in Q-set. 1.96*(1/√25) = 0.396 (Watts and Stenner 2005); (2) if the Eigenvalue of the factors were equal to or more than 1; and (3) if the cross-product of the two highest factor loadings for that factor exceeded twice the standard error, called Humphrey’s rule (Brown 1993). If a Q-sort loaded significantly to two or more factors, it was not included in the analysis as it would lead to confounded factor loading.

Factor interpretations

Factor interpretation involves an analysis of the factors with the support of the qualitative data gathered during the post-sort interviews. The crib sheet writing exercise (Watts and Stenner 2005), which guides the researcher to interpret the data holistically, and the answers from the semi-structured interviews helped build the study’s narrative.

Discourse analysis: building the narrative from the Q-sorts

Discourse analysis summarizes the opinions of the factor it represents and aims to make the results more comprehensible across factors. The narrative was created using the crib sheet technique, which helped to give an overview of the insights of the findings. This was a security measure to ensure that statements were not overlooked. With this technique, the highest and lowest rated statements from each factor, along with the most different rated statements from the other factor, were chosen for the narrative (Watts and Stenner 2005). Ten statements chosen for the narrative from Factor 1 and Factor 2 rated +4, -4, +3, and -3. Additionally, seven consensus statements rated across +2 to -3 were also selected to build the narrative.

In total, 17 statements were selected to represent the narrative of the Q-exercise. These statements will later be referred to by number; for example, statement number 23 with a ranking of +4, will be referred to as (23: +4), and statement number 12 with a ranking of +1 from factor 1 and +2 from factor 2 will be referred to as (12: +1, +2) in the narrative. The viewpoints that create the narrative were also complemented with quotes from the interviews.

The chosen statements for the narrative (marked in Italics) can be found in Append. 3.

RESULTS

For factor extraction, the Kaiser-Guttman criterion and Humprey’s rule were applied. The online Q-method software suggested two factors for retention, accounting for approximately 42% of the study’s explained variance. Of the 10 Q-sorts, four loaded significantly to Factor 1, and five loaded significantly to Factor 2 (Table 1). In other words, two clusters of shared viewpoints could significantly be derived from this exercise.

The composite Q-sorts for Factor 1 and Factor 2 are shown in Figs. 5 and 6 below. Subsequently, the Venn diagram in Fig. 7 was created using these composite Q-sorts and the factor arrays from the crib sheet (see Append. 4). The Venn diagram prompted the development of the narrative for this study.

The narrative from the Q

This section will explain the Venn diagram (Fig. 7) with supporting quotes (see Append. 4 for the extended version) from the participants of the interviews to answer the three research questions of this study. A summary of Factor 1, Factor 2, and Consensus statements are highlighted below.

Factor 1

Summary of opinion 1: Mobile apps promote the visibility of women and lead to increased collaboration between male and female fishers in the community, creating a sense of group identity that fosters trust and facilitates stronger collective action.

Factor 1 demonstrates a relative disagreement with the statement that mobile apps like PescaData allow fishers to have self-recognition, which in turn, increases collective action in the community (25: -3). Rather, apps generate group identity in the fishing community, which increases trust and collective action (3: +3).

...apps are also able to connect to fishing communities on the other side of the village. They’re able to share what they are doing and what has been done and they also promote collaboration between communities. So it definitely has strengthened these types of connections and allowed for the visibility of different fishing groups to increase. (P4, Female)

Also, as noted by Factor 1, NGOs cannot train fishers on gender equality or provide a safe space for women to join fishing networks (20: -4). Rather, the use of mobile apps has the potential to bridge the gender gap and facilitate knowledge co-sharing among male and female fishers in the community, which in turn fosters increased trust and leads to more inclusive decision making and compliance with marine reserves. This, in turn, encourages more collective action within the fishing community (1: +3). In the post-sort interviews, a task-sharing mechanism was mentioned where, if fishers were working under a patron (i.e., a permisionario, or holder of an individual fishing permit), then whenever a male fisher encountered a female fisher (i.e., a wife or daughter at home), the male fisher hands over the catch data reporting to the woman. Similarly, in a fishing cooperative, the members come to a consensus on a woman qualified to report catch on behalf of the cooperative. This way, using the mobile app, the women start reporting not only community solutions but also the daily catch data on behalf of the male fishers in the community, leading to increased group identity and trust.

Once women actively use apps, it gives us a lot of trust and confidence to engage with each other as a community. (P7, Male)

Additionally, Factor 1 demonstrated that fishers respect the ban placed on scarce species because they have trust in their community (7: +4). Fishers’ strong agreement with this statement demonstrates how apps help to build trust and increase compliance with marine reserves.

...in my community, marine reserves are respected using the app. We duly share information in the app, and then more people are able to respect the reserves and the norms that are established for our fishing community. (P9, Male)

Factor 2

Summary of opinion 2: Mobile apps facilitate stronger collective action and promote gender equality, which has led to increased compliance with marine reserves among the male fishers in the community.

Relative disagreement is seen in the statement that mobile apps have allowed women to understand their fishing contributions across the value chain, making them more aware of their rights (17: -4). The interviews later revealed that it is more from the support of the cooperatives that the visibility of women’s contributions in small-scale fisheries increases (for example, by accelerating the process to obtain their fishing permits when women are involved), which enables them to have more capacity for action and provides opportunities to be involved in decision making (14: +3). Factor 2 further illustrates that gender equality and collective action begin when men increasingly support and collaborate with their wives (23: +4), or female fishers in their cooperatives. This collaboration unites the fishing community with greater respect and compliance with marine reserves (9: +3). The participants’ high support for this statement demonstrates how mobile apps lead to stronger collective action in the community.

...in their community, they work closely with CONANP [National Commission of Natural Protected Areas], and for CONANP projects and the projects that are realized within the community, they’re obligated to include about 60–70% women on these projects. (P2, Female)

The ability to communicate between fishers or community members that this action or this reserve is precisely for conserving so we can have these species in the future as well, leads to better fishing in general. Well, I believe that this would promote trust and collective action. (P3, Male)

Consensus statements—shared opinions by all research participants

Summary of consensus statements: The rise in gender-specific fisheries data through mobile apps indicates a growing trend of women’s active participation in decision-making processes, thus increasing their visibility within Mexican fishing communities.

The participants of the study showed a relative disagreement with the statements that female-led cooperatives that own fishing permits offer equal opportunities for female fishers to earn fair compensation (16: -2, -1), and mobile apps aid fishers in connecting with NGOs, enhancing their training, and promoting the inclusion of women and young people in the fishing network (18: -3, -3). It was later revealed from the interviews that fishing cooperatives and NGOs like COBI need to play a significant role in increasing the use of mobile apps among fishers in the community by explaining to both male and female fishers how mobile apps like PescaData can benefit them in their day-to-day fishing activities.

Explain how Pescadata helps fishers to improve their market or the agility of the river warnings; so more people want to use mobile apps. Such training not only gives us [women] visibility but also empowerment without having us require independent permits... (P5, Female)

All respondents were in disagreement with the statement that female fishers’ active participation in environmental promoter groups will raise awareness for fishermen to respect marine reserves (15: -2, -3). Post-sort interviews later revealed that female fishers’ active participation in reporting community solutions and catch data using mobile apps like PescaData has increased trust and collaboration between male and female fishers, leading to stronger collective action and compliance with marine reserves.

Well, I’m going to tell you from my experience of the time I have in fishing, which is 11 years that I have already been in the fishing sector, working as such, and I have realized that not only here in San Felipe but in the majority of coastal communities, women are the ones who promote conservation and environmental care. Although there are men in conservation, but we mostly see women, at least in the fishing communities of community groups or associations, we are more the women who promote conservation through reporting community solutions in the apps. I include myself in it. (P10, Female)

The statement that focus groups are safe spaces to improve trust and collective action in the community (2: 0, 0) received a neutral opinion from both factors. However, in the post-sort interviews, all participants expressed strong support for the role of cooperatives or NGOs in setting up focus groups for discussing privacy policies of mobile apps. The reason was, first, to increase knowledge of apps among the fishers and, second, to discuss offering scholarships and other support to members’ children, where the cooperatives can expect the next generation of children to keep contributing to the fishing community when they are older (22: +2, +2). Another neutral opinion was expressed for the statement that apps are being used to increase the visibility of women’s involvement in various communal activities (21: -1, 0), a high positive consensus from all ten participants in the Q-sorting exercise and post-sort interviews revealed that the rise in gender-specific fisheries data significantly highlighted women’s involvement in decision-making processes, enhancing their visibility in the community (12: +1, +2). Thus, their contributions are acknowledged and taken into account because the reporting source can be observed and monitored. This demonstrates how mobile apps provide a platform for women’s fishing roles to be recognized in Mexican fishing communities.

Of course, as my colleague said, women have always participated in fishing activities, but to a certain extent, they are not seen, because, in a certain way, they are hidden. So when using the apps, they appear, as they have always been there. (P3, Male)

Overall, the consensus statements in this study highlight the significant role that mobile apps, like PescaData, play in increasing women’s visibility and participation in decision-making processes within Mexican fishing communities. Although mobile apps have empowered women by providing a platform to report fishing data and promote conservation efforts, challenges remain in achieving gender equality, particularly regarding fair compensation in female-led cooperatives. The study revealed that, although there was initial disagreement about women’s equal opportunities in cooperatives, post-sort interviews showed that women’s involvement in reporting data has fostered trust and collaboration among fishers. Additionally, focus groups, facilitated by cooperatives and NGOs, play a crucial role in enhancing understanding of mobile apps and fostering support for the next generation of fishers. In summary, mobile apps were found to be a valuable tool for amplifying women’s voices and promoting their roles in the fishing community, although structural barriers to achieving full equality persist.

DISCUSSION

This study finds that mobile apps like PescaData can play a transformative role in fostering collaboration, trust, and gender inclusivity within small-scale fisheries (SSF). By analyzing fishers’ perspectives through Q-methodology, it reveals how increased visibility of women’s contributions reshapes social and collective dynamics in Mexican fishing communities. These findings offer valuable local insights and contribute to global conversations on gender equity and fisheries management, addressing challenges such as gender invisibility, data transparency, and compliance with marine reserves that affect SSF worldwide. Although Tilley and Roscher (2020) caution that digital technologies can exacerbate social inequalities, digital exclusion, and elite capture if not carefully governed and locally engaged, our study provides empirical evidence that co-developed tools like PescaData—designed to promote transparency and data ownership—can enhance gender inclusivity, trust, and collective action. However, Ferguson (2006) critiques that development technologies are rarely neutral, often reinforcing existing bureaucratic and political power structures rather than dismantling them. He asserts that development efforts may function “not as a machine for eliminating poverty [...] but a machine for reinforcing the power of those who dominate the poor” (ibid.). Our study responds to Ferguson’s critique by showing that when digital tools are developed collaboratively with local communities and integrated into inclusive management frameworks, they can help redistribute power—for example, by increasing women’s visibility in resource management. This highlights that the potential of information and communication technology depends heavily on their embeddedness within supportive social and institutional contexts that address power dynamics and ensure meaningful participation (Cuevas Gómez et al. 2022). Ultimately, the transformative impact of digitalization arises not from technology alone, but from its inclusive, context-sensitive integration into fisheries management.

In the following paragraphs, we explore the key themes that emerged from the Q-factor analysis, emphasizing how mobile apps enhance women’s involvement across the fisheries value chain and how this, in turn, strengthens group identity and compliance with marine reserves. Additionally, we discuss the study’s methodological contributions, broader implications, and limitations, offering a clearer understanding of the relationship between digital tools, gender inclusivity, and sustainable fisheries management.

Factor 1, which includes all Q-sorts from the female participants across the value chain (fisherwoman, community monitors, technical, post-harvest processing), reveals an important finding of this study: PescaData has increased the visibility of women’s work contributions; this, in turn, has fostered collaboration between male and female fishers to operate as a social unit in the community. This leads to increased trust and a sense of group identity, which strengthens collective action within and across communities. Importantly, these findings contribute to global conversations on gender equity in SSF, where women’s roles remain largely invisible despite their substantial contributions across the fisheries value chain (Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO) 2016, Franz et al. 2023).

On a global scale, women constitute half of the small-scale fisheries workforce and are extensively engaged in processing and commercial activities (FAO 2016). According to Monfort (2015), “women are perceived to be trustworthy, dedicated, meticulous, flexible, compliant, quality minded, and cheaper than men.” Given that, with PescaData, women are now involved in reporting both catch data and community solutions, it can be concluded that women’s activities are more visible across the fishing sector. This higher visibility of women together with their perceived trustworthiness may contribute to increased trust within the community, and thus, better management of illegal fishing. The findings of this study contribute to the global discourse on gender equity by demonstrating how digital tools like PescaData can increase the visibility of women’s contributions, foster gender-inclusive fisheries governance, and promote collective action in traditionally male-dominated sectors.

Furthermore, to counteract the invisibility of women in the fishing sector, COBI collaborated with various institutions to jointly develop key actions and programs that contribute to achieving gender equality. One such program is called “Gender Equality at Sea,” through which women recognize themselves as part of the fishing sector and strengthen their capacities to actively participate in the implementation of fisheries sustainability solutions (Igualdad de Género en el Mar 2025).

Additionally, initiatives promoting gender equity in Mexico have included a forum on this topic held by the Fisheries Commission and chaired by a deputy of the National Chamber of Deputies (a legislative arm of the Mexican government), which highlighted the critical yet often overlooked role of women in the fishing sector and the inequalities they face (Cámara de Diputados 2022). Women contribute significantly across the entire fisheries value chain—as fishers, processors, and sellers—yet their work remains undervalued, and they are underrepresented in decision making. Speakers at the forum emphasized key challenges, including limited access to credit, economic and infrastructure constraints, unfair wages, and even workplace harassment. Despite these barriers, women continue to be a fundamental pillar of the industry, particularly in indigenous communities where they often lead fishing activities. Calls were made for stronger public policies, increased institutional support, and greater recognition of women’s contributions to ensure gender equity and empower women within the fisheries sector (ibid.). Initiatives like these are part of a growing global effort to address gender disparities in SSF, as similar challenges of underrepresentation and limited decision-making power persist worldwide. By showcasing the positive impacts of digital tools on gender dynamics, this study offers valuable insights for other regions facing comparable socio-economic contexts, reinforcing the global relevance of promoting women’s agency in fisheries management.

Our results show that PescaData is reshaping gender dynamics in fisheries by increasing the visibility of women’s contributions and influencing power structures within fishing communities. Although the sector remains highly gender-stratified, digital tools could facilitate shifts in traditional roles by fostering greater recognition of women’s economic and decision-making power (Castillo and Vosloo 2018). According to Pedroza-Gutiérrez et al. (2024), economic power plays a crucial role in enabling the formal participation of women in the fishing sector. Access to fish resources, economic activities, and social institutions (e.g., family networks, cooperatives, and government programs) significantly influence gender equity (ibid). Regional differences in gender roles further highlight how variations in fisheries productivity, resource availability, and external economic opportunities shape power dynamics within households and communities (Frangoudes and Gerrard 2018). Frangoudes and Gerrard (2018) argue that achieving gender equity in fisheries requires increased visibility of women’s work, better access to training, and supportive policies that enhance their economic, positional, and definitional power. Our results support this conclusion with respect to increased visibility of women’s work.

Building on this, our findings (drawing on Factor 2 results) indicate that the increased visibility of women through PescaData has led to a shift in attitudes and norms among male fishers in the community, resulting in greater recognition and appreciation of women’s contributions to small-scale fisheries. Furthermore, the app has fostered trust and collective action, promoting gender equality through the delegation and co-production of fishing knowledge by both male and female fishers. Higher levels of trust have, in turn, led to increased compliance with marine reserves, demonstrating the broader social and environmental benefits of integrating women more fully into fisheries management and decision making. Thus, our study supports earlier findings that trust and reciprocity-based norms are crucial for addressing collective action challenges in general (Ostrom 1990) and in small-scale fisheries in particular (Basurto et al. 2013, Lindkvist et al. 2017).

Based on the subjective perceptions of the 10 fishery leaders, this study adds new knowledge to the current literature by showing how the growing trend of women’s active participation in decision-making processes through the use of mobile apps has increased their visibility in Mexican fishing communities. Correspondingly, the study also shows that this increased visibility has strengthened collaboration between the male and female fishers in the fishing communities, leading to increased trust and group identity. The participatory approach that is facilitated by apps leads to fairer and more sustainable fisheries management outcomes like gender equality and increased compliance with marine reserves among the male fishers in the community. As previously identified by Ban et al. (2019), marine reserves are a key component of fisheries conservation strategies because of their positive spillover effect on target species. However, the challenge of compliance with marine reserves remains. The results of this study suggest that women’s active reporting of fishing activities on a daily basis increases compliance with marine reserves, which can help to address non-compliance by reducing illegal fishing.

Furthermore, the results show that apps like PescaData can serve as tools for providing accessible and transparent data on who is reporting. Our results also show that this can lead to capacity building and knowledge exchange, whereby fishers retain rights over their data they generate, learn from each other, and share best fishing practices within and across different communities without third-party involvement. Such collective action can prevent the exploitation of common-pool resources and mitigate the tragedy of the commons in SSF (Basurto et al. 2020, Thanh et al. 2021, van Klingeren and de Graaf 2021). This has global implications for small-scale fisheries, where the adoption of digital tools may enhance transparency, empower local communities, and promote more equitable and sustainable fisheries management worldwide.

Methodological contributions

This is the first study in the context of Mexican SSF that used Q-methodology to investigate the relationship between mobile app usage and women’s visibility in SSF. The study further explored the implications of this relationship on communal trust, collective action, and compliance with marine reserves. Q-methodology was used to conduct an exploratory analysis to uncover underlying patterns in fishers’ perspectives and opinions. This allowed for the identification of shared and differing viewpoints and emergent themes within SSF, shedding light on key issues and dynamics in the Mexican fishing community that may not have been apparent through the traditional combination of quantitative and/or qualitative methods employed in previous studies (see, e.g., Solano et al. 2021). Although some unexplained variance in participant’s Q-sorts is expected in Q-methodology, it does not undermine the validity of the study’s conclusions. The key aim of Q-methodology is to identify and describe distinct shared viewpoints rather than account for all individual variations. The factors extracted represent the most salient and commonly held perspectives within the participant group, ensuring that the study’s findings remain meaningful and reliable (Millar et al. 2022). Furthermore, according to Gao and Soranzo (2020), the unexplained variance likely reflects individual nuances rather than systematic gaps in the data, and its impact is minimized by the rigorous factor extraction process used in the analysis.

Moreover, in Q-methodology, a confounded Q-sort—where a participant’s responses load onto multiple factors—does not compromise the robustness of the results (Sneegas et al. 2021). Instead, it indicates that the individual’s perspective shares similarities with multiple viewpoints rather than aligning strongly with a single factor. This is a natural occurrence in Q-methodology, as perspectives often exist on a continuum rather than as rigid categories (Hugé et al. 2016). The study’s conclusions remain valid because the identified factors represent the most distinct and commonly shared viewpoints within the data set. Furthermore, the presence of confounded Q-sorts reinforces the complexity of subjective viewpoints without undermining the integrity of the findings (Sorola 2022).

Implications of the findings

The study demonstrates that promoting the inclusivity of women and granting them agency significantly enhances their visibility within the fisheries sector. According to Bergseth et al. (2023), broadening our perspective and focus to govern for compliance, rather than for simple rule enforcement, represents a cost-effective approach to addressing compliance issues in marine reserves. Involving fishers, including women, in data collection and analysis can lead to more accurate and relevant information for better management decisions and marine governance (Tilley and Roscher 2020). This study shows how the involvement of women is central to tackling the issue of non-compliance with marine reserves.

As Fujita et al. (2018) noted, fishers value transparent and fair data sharing, a fundamental design principle of PescaData and a crucial consideration for this study. Tilley and Roscher (2020) find that the spread of mobile apps in SSF requires transparency in how data are used and evaluated. Although PescaData’s community solutions are public, the fact that fishers own the reported catch data and have exclusive rights to them may accelerate the adoption and impact of the proposed solutions. Through this diffusion mechanism, the visibility of women’s contributions to SSF can be significantly increased, particularly when apps ensure transparency in how data are used and evaluated. This model of participatory, transparent data has the potential to inspire similar approaches in other regions. The scaling of inclusive digital tools globally can help meet the broader goal of equity in fisheries management and policy.

Our findings suggest that mobile apps can amplify women’s voices and increase their participation in communal activities. To be fully effective for increasing gender equity in fisheries, mobile apps must be embedded within broader institutional frameworks. As highlighted by both the fishery leaders in our study and the findings of Espinosa-Romero et al. (2017), community trust and app adoption are strengthened when cooperatives and NGOs actively participate in training and outreach activities. This underscores the need for collaborative management models as suggested in Ocean Risk and Resilience Action Alliance (ORRAA) (2023), where mobile apps are integrated with institutional support mechanisms that safeguard livelihoods and ensure inclusive participation. Finally, based on our findings and prior studies, we suggest that app-based interventions should actively involve local communities in both the design and implementation process, in line with the work of Torre and Fernández Rivera-Melo (2018) and Villaseñor-Derbez et al. (2022).

Limitations of the study

The selected participants were carefully chosen to represent the broader group of small-scale fishers in different communities around Mexico, and the results were cross-validated with COBI, however, the findings may not be generalizable to a larger population of fishers, as the sample may not be representative enough to draw broader conclusions. Although the small sample size of 10 fishery leaders is sufficient for identifying and comparing factors within Q-methodology, this limitation could be addressed in future research by expanding the participant pool. Ensuring more diverse representation across key demographic variables would also enhance the robustness of findings and improve the transferability of results to a broader population.

Additionally, the sample consisted of six female fishers and four male fishers, which could skew the results to a potential gender bias, and the exclusion of a confounding Q-sort could have given rise to a higher percentage of explained variance for Factor 2. We attempted to address this limitation by conducting post-sort interviews alongside the Q-sorting exercise, which provided more nuanced insights into gender dynamics and a clearer picture of the clustered opinions of the sampled fishers in Mexico. Additionally, the concourse statements may not cover the full range of perspectives or dimensions relevant to the research, potentially overlooking important aspects of the phenomenon under study. To mitigate this limitation, we conducted two rounds of pilot tests of the concourse statements with fishery actors to validate the relevance and comprehensiveness of the concourse statements before administering the full study (see Append. 5 for details). Moreover, the Q-sorting exercise’s effectiveness depends on the participants’ ability to understand and accurately rank the statements, which may vary. We addressed this limitation by integrating the Q-method with semi-structured interviews with the participants, thereby facilitating more reliable findings. Furthermore, the Q-method software is better suited to computer-based platforms with enhanced internet connectivity, compared with mobile devices. Due to interface limitations, including the precision required to make inputs on mobile touchscreens, and the restricted zooming capacity of the online Q-method software on mobile phones, we encouraged participants to use a computer whenever possible. For those who used mobile devices, a demo of the Q-sorting exercise was given prior to engaging in the exercise. Furthermore, limited internet connectivity in certain cases prevented some participants from completing the online Q-sorting exercise, and consequently, they were not included in the final sample. Lastly, due to time constraints, it was beyond the scope of the study to include individuals who were not actively using PescaData. This provides an opportunity for future research to include those who are not using PescaData or who have stopped using PescaData, as their inclusion in a future study would enhance the generalizability of the findings.

CONCLUSION

The study concludes that the use of technology like mobile apps can contribute to women’s visibility and, in turn, may lead to sustainable fisheries management while promoting gender equality and inclusivity. Our results show that apps can empower women by giving them a platform to actively participate and be recognized in the fisheries sector. Women in small-scale fisheries in Mexico are key to building trust and reinforcing group identity within their communities. The solutions shared through PescaData facilitate immediate improvements within fishing communities and serve as catalysts for informing other fishing communities, thereby enhancing overall resilience across communities. As women take on the responsibility of reporting catch data and community solutions using mobile apps, they demonstrate reliability and commitment to sustainable fishing practices. This shift in roles encourages more men to entrust women with these tasks, and consequently, the increased participation of women enhances compliance with marine reserves among male fishers, as they respect and value the contributions of their female counterparts. This collaborative approach leads to stronger collective action within the community toward marine conservation. This study shows the potential for women’s knowledge and contributions to bring fishers and fish workers across communities to work together toward equitable and sustainable small-scale fisheries, and therefore, highlights this theme as an important avenue for further research.

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