Table 1. Literature examples for assessing predictions concerning fleeing responses. Predictions were that fleeing probability or flight initiation distance increase when disturbance stimuli (A) approach more directly, (B) approach more quickly, and (C) are larger in size. They also increase when (D) distance from refuge is greater, (E) group size of disturbers is greater, and (F) fleeing costs are lower (see Fleeing for details).

Study   Species Stimuli Predictions         Supported Rejected Not tested or controls lacking Born et al. (1999)   ringed seal helicopter and fixed-wing aircraft A, F B, C, D, E   Burger (1998)   Common Tern motorized watercraft A, B C, D, E, F   Burger and Gochfeld (1998)   Louisiana and Little Blue Herons people on foot A, E B, C, D, F     other waterbird spp. A E B, C, D, F   Delaney et al. (1999)   Mexican Spotted Owl helicopter A, F B, C, D, E   Frid (2001a,b) Dall’s sheep helicopter, fixed-wing aircraft A, D B, C, E, F   Hamr (1988)   chamois hikers, skiers E, F A, C, B, D   Lafferty (2001)   Snowy Plover people on foot A B, E C, D, F   Papouchis et al. (2001)   bighorn sheep hikers, bikers, vehicles A, D E B, C, F   Steidl and Anthony (1996)   Bald Eagle paddle raft A* A* B, C, D, E, F   Swarthout and Steidl (2001)   Mexican Spotted Owl single hiker A B, C, D, E, F   Ward et al. (1999)   Pacific Brant and Canada Goose helicopter and fixed-wing aircraft A B, C, D, E, F *The prediction was supported for fleeing probability, but not flight initiation distance.