Table 1. Literature examples for assessing predictions concerning fleeing responses. Predictions were that fleeing probability or flight initiation distance increase when disturbance stimuli (A) approach more directly, (B) approach more quickly, and (C) are larger in size. They also increase when (D) distance from refuge is greater, (E) group size of disturbers is greater, and (F) fleeing costs are lower (see Fleeing for details).

Study
 
Species
Stimuli
Predictions
       
Supported
Rejected
Not tested or
controls lacking
Born et al. (1999)
 
ringed seal
helicopter and fixed-wing aircraft
A, F

B, C, D, E
 
Burger (1998)
 
Common Tern
motorized watercraft
A, B

C, D, E, F
 
Burger and Gochfeld (1998)
 
Louisiana and Little Blue Herons
people on foot
A, E

B, C, D, F
 

 
other waterbird spp.

A
E
B, C, D, F
 
Delaney et al. (1999)
 
Mexican Spotted Owl
helicopter
A, F

B, C, D, E
 
Frid (2001a,b)

Dall’s sheep
helicopter, fixed-wing aircraft
A, D

B, C, E, F
 
Hamr (1988)
 
chamois
hikers, skiers
E, F

A, C, B, D
 
Lafferty (2001)
 
Snowy Plover
people on foot
A
B, E
C, D, F
 
Papouchis et al. (2001)
 
bighorn sheep
hikers, bikers, vehicles
A, D
E
B, C, F
 
Steidl and Anthony (1996)
 
Bald Eagle
paddle raft
A*
A*
B, C, D, E, F
 
Swarthout and Steidl (2001)
 
Mexican Spotted Owl
single hiker
A

B, C, D, E, F
 
Ward et al. (1999)
 
Pacific Brant and Canada Goose
helicopter and fixed-wing aircraft
A

B, C, D, E, F

*The prediction was supported for fleeing probability, but not flight initiation distance.