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Copyright © 2004 by the author(s). Published here under license by The Resilience Alliance.
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The following is the established format for referencing this article:
Ruiz-Pérez, M., B. Belcher, R. Achdiawan, M. Alexiades, C. Aubertin, J. Caballero, B. Campbell, C. Clement, T. Cunningham, A. Fantini, H. de Foresta, C. García Fernández, K. H. Gautam, P. Hersch Martínez, W. de Jong, K. Kusters, M. G. Kutty, C. López, M. Fu, M. A. Martínez Alfaro, T. R. Nair, O. Ndoye, R. Ocampo, N. Rai, M. Ricker, K. Schreckenberg, S. Shackleton, P. Shanley, T. Sunderland, and Y. Youn. 2004. Markets drive the specialization strategies of forest peoples. Ecology and Society 9(2): 4. [online] URL: http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol9/iss2/art4/

A version of this article in which text, figures, tables, and appendices are separate files may be found by following this link.

Report

Markets Drive the Specialization Strategies of Forest Peoples

Manuel Ruiz-Pérez1, Brian Belcher2, Ramadhani Achdiawan2, Miguel Alexiades3, Catherine Aubertin4, Javier Caballero5, Bruce Campbell2, Charles Clement6, Tony Cunningham7, Alfredo Fantini8, Hubert de Foresta9, Carmen García Fernández2, Krishna H Gautam10, Paul Hersch Martínez11, Wil de Jong2, Koen Kusters2, M. Govindan Kutty12, Citlalli López2, Maoyi Fu13, Miguel Angel Martínez Alfaro5, T.K. Raghavan Nair12, Ousseynou Ndoye14, Rafael Ocampo, Nitin Rai, Martin Ricker5, Kate Schreckenberg15, Sheona Shackleton16, Patricia Shanley2, Terry Sunderland17, and Yeo-Chang Youn18


1Universidad Autónoma de Madrid2Center for International Forestry Research (CIFOR)3University of Kent at Canterbury4IRD-Orléans5Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México6Instituto Nacional de Pesquisas da Amazônia7World Wildlife Fund/UNESCO/Kew People and Plants Initiative8Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina9Institut de recherche pour le développement10Hokkaido University11Instituto Nacional de Antropología e Historia12Sylva conS13Chinese Academy of Forestry14CIFOR-Cameroon15Overseas Development Institute16Rhodes University17African Rattan Research Programme18Seoul National University



ABSTRACT

Engagement in the market changes the opportunities and strategies of forest-related peoples. Efforts to support rural development need to better understand the potential importance of markets and the way people respond to them. To this end, we compared 61 case studies of the commercial production and trade of nontimber forest products from Asia, Africa, and Latin America. The results show that product use is shaped by local markets and institutions, resource abundance, and the relative level of development. Larger regional patterns are also important. High-value products tend to be managed intensively by specialized producers and yield substantially higher incomes than those generated by the less specialized producers of less managed, low-value products. We conclude that commercial trade drives a process of intensified production and household specialization among forest peoples.

KEY WORDS: Commercialization, forest use, market development, nontimber forest products, poverty, resource management, specialization.

Published: September 1, 2004


INTRODUCTION

Beginning in the early 1980s, efforts to link conservation and development focused attention on the alarming rates of deforestation. This attention coincided with new commitments to address rural poverty and the recognition that forests can provide multiple products and services. Forest products, especially nontimber forest products (NTFP), were given a high profile at this time because of the perception that forest exploitation for products rather than timber is more benign (Myers 1988). Forest products were also considered more accessible to rural populations, especially to the rural poor (Kumar and Saxena 2002). Recently, more realistic assessments (Peters et al. 1989, Godoy and Bawa 1993, Simpson et al. 1996, Godoy et al. 2000, Sheil and Wunder 2002) have lowered these high expectations of the economic and conservation benefits of forest products. Nevertheless, interest in forest products remains strong. This interest was evident in several recent international meetings that looked at the issue of forests and forest-related livelihoods, including The Role of Forestry on Poverty Alleviation, 4–7 September 2001, Semproniano, Italy; The International Workshop on Forests in Poverty Reduction Strategies: Capturing the Potential, 1–2 October 2002, Tuusula, Finland; and The International Conference on Rural Livelihoods, Forests, and Biodiversity, 19–23 May 2003, Bonn, Germany.

Analyses of the processes and trends that affect the use and management of forest products are essential to guide further conservation and development interventions. So far, however, these analyses have offered contrasting perspectives. Some authors consider the wild harvesting of forest products to be the first step along a domestication-intensification path that leads to replacing wild-harvest forests with plantations or to substituting synthetics for forest products (Homma 1992). Other approaches view forest products as part of a diversified household economy (Michon and de Foresta 1997). This approach emphasizes the domestication of landscapes rather than the domestication of species, creating agroforestry systems that occupy an intermediate position between wild-harvest forests and plantations. Finally, some authors stress idiosyncratic, cultural, and opportunity values to advocate the long-term maintenance of livelihoods based on the harvest of wild-harvest forest products (Grenand and Grenand 1996). Many agree that the relationship between people and forests must be considered within the larger context of macroeconomic processes (Angelsen and Wunder 2003). We consider commoditization, i.e., the transition from a subsistence to a market economy, as important to understanding the role, potential, and trends associated with the use and management of forest products. In this paper, we report on a comparative study that analyzes the links between the livelihoods of forest-related peoples and global commoditization processes.


DATA

We looked at 61 cases of the use of commercial forest products and applied a multivariate analysis based on a method pioneered by Ruiz-Pérez and Byron (1999). Each case was defined as the commercial production of one forest product by people who live in a given area and who share common socioeconomic, environmental, and political conditions. Each case was thus treated as an internally homogeneous entity.

Regionally based research coordinators recruited collaborators and selected cases through established networks, referrals from experts, and direct contact with potential collaborators. Regional coordinators attempted to select 20 cases from each region. The selection of cases was based on three main criteria: (1) the forest product had to demonstrate commercial value locally, regionally, or internationally; (2) the production-to-consumption system (Belcher 1998) had to have been researched and documented with significant amounts of information already available; and (3) the overall set of cases had to balance regional coverage and represent a broad range of products, production systems, and uses. In practice, all the cases that met the first two criteria were included. The availability of cases with sufficient pre-existing data was the main limit on the number of cases included in this study.

The final selection of cases included many important case studies of commercially traded nontimber forest products (NTFPs) representing different product types, methods of management that ranged from wild gathering to plantations, and markets of various sizes. Cases were from Asia (n = 21), Africa (n = 17), and Latin America (n = 23). Although the data set is extensive and diverse, it is not a truly random sample. Some conclusions should therefore be interpreted with care. However, the comparable size of samples from each of the three main tropical regions and the fact that the eight main categories of product use do not show statistical differences between regions (X2 = 14.068, df = 14, P = 0.445) lends support to the robustness of the sample. The table in Appendix 1 lists the case studies by species and location and gives the name of the author of this paper who provided the case.

A stepwise approach was followed for the selection of variables. First, the major categories of factors that characterize a case were identified based on those described by Ruiz-Pérez and Byron (1999). These categories were expanded by incorporating a production-to-consumption perspective (Belcher 1998). Each category was then characterized according to an extended list of attributes. This resulted in 114 variables that describe the geographic setting, the product, the production system, the ecological implications of production, the socioeconomic characteristics of the area in which the raw material is produced, the processing industry and trade, the institutional characteristics of producers, the relevant policies, and the external interventions. Many of these variables were measured or coded in more than one way, resulting in a total of 246 data points. Emphasis was placed on producer households. Where possible, quantitative variables were used. The variables included both current status and trends over the past 10 yr. Cash values were converted to U.S. dollars using official exchange rates and standardized using a purchasing-power parity index. The original list of variables and their definitions is included as Appendix 2. A full description of the approach is provided in Belcher and Ruiz-Pérez (2001).

To harmonize definitions, criteria, and measurements, two workshops were held in each of the three regions for a total of six. The first workshop was devoted to methodological issues, and collaborators discussed the definitions of variables and the practicalities of data requirements. The second workshop, which took place approximately 12 months after the first, focused on reviewing and completing data for individual cases and on preliminary analyses. Finally, a meeting was held with a subgroup of case authors from the three regions who indicated a strong interest in the analysis; they are among the authors of this paper.

Two main documents were prepared by each case author. The first was a standardized spreadsheet of all variables and a narrative report describing the case. The narrative reports were published in three edited volumes of Asian (Kusters and Belcher 2004), African (Sunderland and Ndoye 2004), and Latin American (Alexiades and Shanley 2004) cases, respectively.


RESULTS

Nontimber forest products in household economic strategies

Economic theory predicts that a shift from a subsistence to a cash economy will stimulate specialization to maximize economic opportunities. The degree of integration into the cash economy should influence production strategies. To analyze these relationships, we used a regression of the total contribution of forest products, i.e., subsistence plus cash, to household income (y) as a function of the percentage of local household income earned in cash (x). An exponential curve proved a good fit (ln y = 0.044x; R2 0.86, F (1,60) = 368.4, P = 0.000), indicating an increasing contribution of individual nontimber forest products (NTFPs) to the household economy of producers as they move from low to high levels of commoditization.

Cases were then grouped by quadrants (Fig. 1), yielding three case sets. A very similar grouping was produced using cluster analysis. The first set (n = 16) represents cases of a typical subsistence strategy in which a forest product is the main and frequently sole source of cash income for predominantly subsistence livelihoods. We use the term "subsistence" to mean that cash income is used to support current consumption. The second set (n = 31) includes cases of a typical diversified economic strategy in which the household economy is well integrated into the cash economy and the forest product provides only a small proportion of total household income. The third set (n = 14) includes cases involving a typical specialized strategy in which cash-oriented households rely on a forest product as their main source of income. No cases occurred in the fourth quadrant.


Fig. 1. A regression showing the change in the amount of household integration into the cash economy (percent of total) with the change in the amount a forest product contributes to household income (percent of total).


We analyzed the relationships between the three categories of cases and all the other variables using bivariate analyses. A Kruskal-Wallis test (a nonparametric test robust to outliers) was used for the quantitative variables (Table 1), and multicorrespondence analysis was used for nominal and ordinal categorical variables (Fig. 2).


Table 1. Significant associations of key variables with household economic strategies. Values reported are median values. NTFP = Nontimber forest products; Kruskal-Wallis = Kruskal-Wallis nonparametric test (df = 2).

   
Household strategy
 
Kruskal-Wallis
Variables  
 
   
Subsistence
 
Diversified
 
Specialized
 
X2
 
P-value
Land price at purchasing power parity (U.S.$/ha)  
416.8
 
1195.2
 
1285.68
 
5.24
 
0.073
NTFP producers household income at
purchasing power parity (U.S.$/yr)
 
2575
 
3119
 
4575
 
7.31
 
0.026
NTFP used by household  
8
 
4
 
4
 
15.46
 
0.000
NTFP producers income to local average  
0.86
 
1
 
1.11
 
6.78
 
0.035
Price of raw material (U.S.$/kg)  
0.13
 
0.36
 
0.565
 
7.71
 
0.021
Value of production (U.S.$/ha/yr)  
0.39
 
1.95
 
49.11
 
10.21
 
0.006
Value of production per person-day (U.S.$)  
0.02
 
0.59
 
1.08
 
5.36
 
0.070
Estimated raw material trade in area (U.S.$/yr)  
14,250
 
20,160
 
400,000
 
9.15
 
0.010


Fig. 2. A multiple correspondence analysis of key variables and household economic strategies. Dimensions 1 and 2 account for 34% and 28% of the variance in the model, respectively. The relative closeness of variable positions in the plot reflects their tendency to be associated.


In 85% (n = 52) of the cases in our study, average household incomes were lower than the national average. This reflects the lack of economic opportunities available in the case study sites, which are typical of rural areas in developing regions. Within these regions, however, the difference in the average income of households that produce forest products and the local average income is significant (Kruskal-Wallis = 6.717; df = 2; P = 0.035). The ratio of income from households that produce forest products to average local income showed median values of 0.86, 1.00, and 1.11 for the subsistence, diversified, and specialized sets of cases, respectively. This ratio measure can be considered a proxy for the potential income differentiation and development between NTFP producers and nonproducers in the same locality. The data indicate a statistically significant difference in the development potential of the economic strategies of the subsistence (below average income), diversified (same as average income), and specialized (above average income) households.

The results (Table 1) characterize each of the household economic strategies in the following terms:

  1. The subsistence strategy households harvest NTFPs from wild resources in unmanaged or lightly managed forests. Analysis of the data from the 10-yr reference period shows that increasing numbers of households are involved, increasing amounts of household income are derived from NTFPs, and the resource base is declining. Subsistence-strategy households tend to use a larger number of other NTFPs, mainly for subsistence purposes, than those in the other two case sets.

  2. The diversified-strategy households fall between the subsistence and specialized sets of cases in terms of household income, market size, and NTFP production value per hectare. In the diversified-strategy cases, NTFPs provide additional income to households that earn the bulk of their income from agriculture or from off-farm sources.

  3. The specialized-strategy households tend to have higher household incomes, command higher prices for their NTFPs, enjoy a higher trade value for the NTFPs in their area, and get better NTFP production per hectare. In these cases, there is also stability in the NTFP markets, the producers' incomes, and the numbers of households involved in production. They tend to have less product adulteration, a lower incidence of customary rules, and relatively stable populations of the target species.

Production options

There are two distinct NTFP production approaches: (1) extraction based on natural regeneration and (2) cultivation in monodominant or mixed forest stands, i.e., plantations or managed forests, in which > 50% of production comes from planted material. We compared groups of cases that engage in these two approaches using Mann-Whitney U and chi-square tests for significance. We found that cases that engage in cultivation have higher values for labor, use more intense technology in production, and produce more per hectare. We also found that the cases that engage in cultivation tend to be strongly associated with private tenure, higher NTFP trade values both locally and nationally, and higher household incomes in absolute and relative terms (Fig. 3). Cases that use cultivation generally enjoy a stable resource base, whereas cases that engage in extraction are frequently associated with declining resources.


Fig. 3. A comparison of variables from cases involving nontimber forest product (NTFP) production in cultivated forest (n=16) versus non-cultivated forest (n=45).


Cultivation becomes the more frequent NTFP production approach as the cases move from being less to more cash-oriented. Cultivation is used in only 6% of the cases in the subsistence-strategy households. However, cultivation is dominant in 29% of diversified-strategy cases and in 43% of cases of specialized-strategy households. An analysis within these latter two groups, in which cultivation is a relatively common practice, provides additional insight into household strategies.

In one subgroup (n = 9) from within the set of cases using the diversified strategy, NTFPs are cultivated as an integral part of overall farming activity. These cases tend to be located in poorer areas in which average local incomes are low. NTFP producer households tend to be wealthier than their neighbors. For the subgroup of cases that do not use cultivation (n = 22), households rely more on off-farm income. Their incomes are equivalent to the local average, and they use wild-harvested NTFPs to help bridge the gap.

In the set of cases that use the specialized economic strategy, a small subgroup uses cultivation (n = 6). In these cases, raw material prices, productivity, household incomes at purchasing power parity, and the ratio of producer to local income all tend to be higher. Household incomes are also higher, approaching the national average. These cases account for a much larger total NTFP trade in the case study area than do specialized cases that do not use cultivation (n = 8), indicating larger and more developed markets. Wild-harvested products tend to give better but nonsignificant (Mann-Whitney U = 17; P = 0.366) returns per unit of labor, but with less total production.

These findings are consistent with Homma's (1992) economic model showing an evolution toward intensive management and cultivation to meet the demand for NTFPs. However, specialization does not require monoculture plantations. Several of our cases within the specialized strategy set rely on managed-forest systems.

Regional characterization

We also analyzed regional groupings by means of bivariate analyses. Kruskal-Wallis tests for significance were used for quantitative variables (Table 2), and multicorrespondence analysis was used for nominal and ordinal categorical variables (Fig. 4). The observed regional differences are the result of contrasting environmental and socioeconomic conditions.


Table 2. Significant associations for key variables in cases from three regions: Asia, Latin America, and Africa. Values reported are media values. NTFP = Nontimber forest products; Kruskal-Wallis = Kruskal-Wallis nonparametric test (df = 2).

   
Region
 
Kruskal-Wallis
Variables  
 
   
Asia
 
Latin America
 
Africa
 
X2
 
P-value
Population density (persons/km2)  
75.1
 
22.3
 
11.1
 
10.65
 
0.005
Elevation of study area (miles above sea level)  
600
 
200
 
400
 
8.30
 
0.016
Road density (km/km2)  
0.44
 
0.17
 
0.12
 
5.56
 
0.062
Precipitation (mm)  
1859
 
1950
 
944
 
11.02
 
0.004
Percentage of product harvested from wild population  
40
 
97
 
100
 
8.06
 
0.018
Labor intensity in NTFP production
(person-days•ha-1•yr-1)
 
30
 
2
 
4
 
5.68
 
0.058
Land price at purchasing power parity (U.S.$/ha)  
2640
 
675
 
368
 
16.30
 
0.000
Time to harvesting maturity (years)  
7
 
10
 
15
 
6.86
 
0.032
Reproductive period (years)  
5
 
7.5
 
20
 
13.64
 
0.001
Average household size  
5
 
5.5
 
6
 
8.39
 
0.015
Local labor rate (U.S.$/day at purchasing power parity)  
6.55
 
10.25
 
5.62
 
5.23
 
0.073
Number of economically harvestable individual per hectare  
400
 
23
 
17
 
8.17
 
0.017
Value of production (U.S.$•ha-1•yr-1)  
6.82
 
2.74
 
0.43
 
9.02
 
0.011
Estimated raw material trade in area (U.S.$/yr)  
220,000
 
70,000
 
8900
 
11.28
 
0.004
NTFP production area per household (ha)  
5.9
 
45.6
 
132
 
10.77
 
0.005
Total trade (export + national)  
11,230,000
 
2,003,000
 
555,000
 
11.26
 
0.003


Fig. 4. A multiple correspondence analysis of key variables by region. Dimensions 1 and 2 account for 24% and 21% of variance in the model, respectively.


Even though all the cases except Korean mushrooms are in tropical or subtropical environments, there is a marked climatic differentiation. The African cases, for example, occur in settings that are significantly drier than those of the other cases. Moreover, the African cases have a larger climatic variability than the other two regions (CV = 0.80, compared with CV = 0.47 for Asia and CV= 0.42 for Latin America). This suggests a higher internal climatic heterogeneity in the African sample.

Levels of economic development in the case study sites can be inferred from three variables: road density, local labor rate, and the per capita income of NTFP producers. The African cases have significantly lower values for these three variables than do the cases from the other regions (Table 2). This significant difference is even more marked if we conduct pairwise comparisons of this region with each of the others. The African cases had larger family sizes, more rapid population growth, and lower levels of development than did the cases from the other regions (X2 = 10.636, df= 4, P = 0.031). This means that the African cases are putting increasing pressure on resources and suffer more climatic restrictions than do the cases from the other tropical regions. Moreover, with stagnant or declining economies in many African countries, there may be greater demand for low-cost NTFPs and lower opportunity costs for commercial harvesters and traders.

We expect that different environmental and development conditions will affect the way forests and NTFPs are used. The analysis of our sample shows that African cases tend to have lower household incomes and smaller trade volumes compared to other regions. They also have growing human populations and an expanding NTFP market demand that increases pressure on the resources. Resources are predominantly unmanaged. Producers' organizations tend to be informal, and there is little government intervention or private investment in the sector.

Asian cases tend to have lower rates of local population growth. In Asia, the forest products are also generally managed more intensively than in Africa, and so there are more cases with a stable resource base. Formal producers' organizations are more common in Asia than in Africa, and producers have a better understanding of their legal rights. Both government interventions and private investment tend to be more common in the Asian cases than in the cases in Africa.

The Latin American cases tend to have intermediate economic conditions and population trends, with more variability within the case set than in the other regions. The NTFP market trends in Latin America are also variable, with a higher frequency of unstable boom and bust situations. There is no clear pattern of management regime nor any stability of resource bases. Producers have a medium level of organization, and they are knowledgeable about their rights. There is some support from government and nongovernment organizations, but little private sector investment.

We compared the regional case sets and their household economic strategies using bivariate analyses to provide a regional perspective of global processes and their effects on household NTFP use and trade (Fig. 5). Rather than a geographically determined analysis, the results present a general outlook that indicates regional features. Thus, although it is possible to find all kinds of strategies in each region, the features of the African cases tend to be associated with those of subsistence strategies, Latin American cases with diversified strategies, and Asian cases with specialized strategies.


Fig. 5. A bivariate analysis of household economic strategies by region.


This result may help to explain the divergence in the literature regarding the potential of NTFPs as tools to improve conservation and local livelihoods. Authors with different regional experiences could be more likely to stress different aspects of NTFP development. For instance, in Africa, researchers often emphasize the safety net and subsistence functions of NTFPs (Falconer 1990, Cavendish 2000). In Asia, which has better developed and more stable markets, research has focused more on market functioning and appropriation by elites (Dove 1993). In contrast, in Latin America, where markets tend to be more innovative and dynamic, researchers tend to stress the importance of the "green" market, e.g., "rain forest crunch," for NTFP conservation and development (Clay 1992, Evans 1993).


CONCLUSIONS

Classifying forest products according to their role in household economic strategies suggests a continuum from lower to higher levels of development with highly differentiated roles and management approaches. Moving from subsistence to a cash economy drives a process of specialization that leads to higher incomes for producers in absolute terms as well as in relation to average local incomes. Increasing market demand for wild-harvested forest products tends to result in overexploitation, a process that is exacerbated by deforestation. Cultivation and intensified forest management are ways to maintain or increase the supply of valuable products to stable or expanding markets. Secure land/resource tenure stands out as a key factor in the cultivation of trees for nontimber forest products (NTFPs).

Although commercial NTFP production provides important income to producers in each of the three sets of cases, its income potential is also linked to the existence of infrastructure, access to skills and services, and other conditions that have been identified in the nonfarm rural economy literature (Lanjouw and Feder 2001). These features are found less often in Africa than in Asia and most of Latin America. Without them, the commercialization of NTFPs may not deliver great improvements and may lead instead to forest-based economies in permanent poverty. The safety net and subsistence value of NTFPs must be recognized. Nevertheless, interventions need to focus on products and systems with growth potential if poverty is to be reduced and people allowed to do more than meet their basic needs. Intervention plans need to consider opportunities and constraints at the household and local levels. They need to understand the nested relationship between local and regional conditions that link NTFP-based economies with general regional development. NTFP activities can neither be researched nor promoted in isolation from the context of the livelihoods affected by them.

The ways that forests are valued and managed and their role in alleviating rural poverty are being revisited (Byron and Arnold 1999, Wunder 2001, Scherr et al. 2002). Our analysis of 61 cases demonstrates the importance of NTFPs as supplementary sources of income. It shows that NTFP activities follow the same economic principles as other income-generating activities. It also shows that some of the best income-earning opportunities lie in intensified systems that mark a transition from gathering to cultivating and that work to overcome the problem of resource depletion.


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Acknowledgments

The first two authors shared the lead in the analysis and writing of this manuscript. All the other authors, who are listed alphabetically, made significant intellectual contributions to the paper. We thank the Department for International Development for financial support for the research. The work was made possible by the careful documentation of the 61 individual cases by the case authors listed in Appendix 1. Sven Wunder, J. E. M. Arnold, Doug Sheil, Arild Angelsen, and two anonymous reviewers provided valued help with detailed comments and suggestions on earlier versions.



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Sunderland, T. C. H., and O. Ndoye, editors. 2004. Forest products, livelihoods and conservation: case studies of non-timber forest product systems. Volume 2: Africa. CIFOR, Bogor, Indonesia.

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APPENDIX 1

Table A1.1. List of cases and their authors.

No.   Product   Species   Primary use of the product   Locality of raw material (province, country)   Author
1   Kernels   Vitellaria paradoxa C.F. Gaertner   Food (vegetable fat)   Atacora, Benin   Kathrin Schreckenberg
2   Fuel wood   Acacia seyal Delile   Fuel wood   Far north of Cameroon   Tata Precilla Ijang
3   Medicinal bark   Prunus africana (Hook. f.) Kalkman   Medicine   Southwest Cameroon   Nouhou Ndam
4   Rattan   Laccosperma secundiflorum (P. Beauv.) Kuntze   Rattan furniture   Central Cameroon   Defo Louis
5   Rattan   Laccosperma secundiflorum (P. Beauv.) Kuntze   Rattan handicrafts   Rio Muni, Equatorial Guinea   Terry Sunderland
6   Chewsticks   Garcinia kola Heckel and Garcinia epunctata Stapf   Medicine/cosmetics   Western Ghana   Dominic Blay, Jr.
7   Rattan   Eremospatha macrocarpa (G. Mann & H. Wendl.) H. Wendl.   Rattan handicrafts   Southwestern Ghana   Charles Adu-Anning
8   Wood   Brachylaena huillensis O. Hoffm.   Woodcarvings   Coastal Kenya   Simon K.Choge
9   Root   Harpagophytum procumbens (Burch.) DC ex Meisn.   Medicine   Omaheke, Namibia   Rachel Wynberg
10   Fruit   Garcinia kola Heckel   Food   Ogun, Nigeria   Atilade Adebisi
11   Fruit   Dacryodes edulis (G. Don) H.J. Lam   Food   Edo, Nigeria   Hassan G. Adewusi
12   Bark   Cassipourea flanaganii (Schinz) Alston   Medicine   Eastern Cape, South Africa   Michelle Cocks
13   Wood   Pterocarpus angolensis DC.   Woodcarvings   Northern South Africa   Sheona Shackleton
14   Wood   Polyscias fulva (Hiern) Harms   Woodcarvings   Mpigi, Uganda   Omeja A. Patrick
15   Elephant hunting   Loxodonta africana   Sport hunting   Mashonaland, Central Zimbabwe   Dale Dore
16   Palm fiber   Hyphaene petersiana Mart.   Palm baskets   Masvingo, Zimbabwe   Phosiso Sola
17   Wood   Afzelia quanzensis Welw.   Woodcarvings   Masvingo, Zimbabwe   Wavell Standa-Gunda
18   Bamboo   Phyllostachys heterocycla (Carrière) S. Matsum.   Bamboo mats and handicrafts   Zhejiang, China   Fu Maoyi
19   Mushrooms   Tricholoma matsutake (Ito & Imai) Singer   Food   Yunnan, China   Chen Ying Long
20   Cardamom   Elettaria cardamomum Maton   Spice   Kerala, India   T.K. Raghavan Nair
21   Garcinia fruit   Garcinia gummi-gutta var. conicarpa (Wight) N.P. Singh   Medicine   Karnataka, India   Nitin Rai
22   Tendu leaves   Diospyros melanoxylon Roxb.   Cigarrete wrappers   Madya Pradesh, India   Arvind A. Boaz
23   Ant larvae   Oecophylla smaragdina   Bird food   Banten, Indonesia   Nicolas Césard
24   Benzoin   Styrax paralleloneurum Perkins   Incense   North Sumatra, Indonesia   Carmen García Fernndez
25   Damar resin   Shorea javanica Koord. & Valet.   Paints, inks, and varnishes   Lampung, Indonesia   Hubert de Foresta
26   Rattan   Calamus spp.   Rattan handicrafts and mats   East Kalimantan, Indonesia   Fadjar Pambudi
27   Sandalwood   Santalum album L.   Essential oils for perfume   East Nusa Tenggara, Indonesia   Dede Rohadi
28   Wood   Paraserianthes falcataria (L.) I.C. Nielsen   Woodcarvings   Bali, Indonesia   Dede Rohadi
29   Wood   Agathis alba (Lam.) Foxw.   Woodcarvings   West Java, Indonesia   Pipin Permadi
30   Mushrooms   Lentinula edodes (Berk.) Pegler   Food   Chungnam, Republic of Korea   Youn Yeo Chang
31   Bark   Boehmeria malabarica Wedd.   Incense   Oudomxay, Laos   Joost Foppes
32   Cardamom   Amomum spp.   Medicine   Phongsaly and Huaphan, Laos   Catherine Aubertin
33   Mulberry bark   Broussonetia papyrifera (L.) L'Hér. ex Vent.   Paper   Sayaboury and Luang Prabang, Laos   Catherine Aubertin
34   Fruit   Choerospondias axillaris (Roxb.) B.L. Burtt & A.W. Hill   Human food   Bagmati, Nepal   Krishna H.Gautam
35   Rattan   Calamus spp.   Rattan handicrafts   Southern Tagalog, Philippines   Honorato G. Palis
36   Bamboo   Neohouzeaua dullooa (Gamble) A. Camus   Bamboo handicrafts   Bac Kan, Vietnam   An Van Bay
37   Cardamom   Amomum villosum Lour.   Medicine   Bac Kan, Vietnam   Dinh Van Tu
38   Rattan   Calamus tetradactylus Hance   Rattan handicrafts   Ha Tinh, Vietnam   Vu Dinh Quang
39   Brazil nuts   Bertholletia excelsa Bonpl..   Food   Vaca Díez and Iturralde, Bolivia   Dietmar Stoian
40   Hearts of palm   Euterpe precatoria Mart.   Food   Vaca Díez and Iturralde, Bolivia   Dietmar Stoian
41   Fruit   Orbignya phalerata Mart.   Oil   Maranhão, Brazil   Claudio Pinheiro
42   Fruit   Platonia insignis Mart.   Food   Pará, Brazil   Socorro Ferreira
43   Fruit   Bactris gasipaes Kunth   Food   Amazonas, Brazil   Charles Clements
44   Fruit   Endopleura uchi (Huber) Cuatrec.   Food   Pará, Brazil   Patricia Shanley
45   Leaves   Baccharis trimera (Less.) DC.   Medicine   Pará, Brazil   Walter Steenbock
46   Leaves   Maytenus ilicifolia Mart. ex Reiss   Medicine   Paraná, Brazil   Marianne Scheffer
47   Hearts of palm   Euterpe edulis Mart.   Food   São Paulo, Brazil   Alfredo Fantini
48   Roots   Pfaffia glomerata (Sprengel) Pedersen   Medicine   Paraná, Brazil   Cirino Corrêa Júnior
49   Rubber   Hevea brasiliensis Müll. Arg.   Rubber handicrafts   Acre, Brazil   Mariana Ciavatta-Pantoja
50   Roots   Psychotria ipecacuanha (Brot.) Stokes   Medicine   Alajuela, Costa Rica   Rafael A. Ocampo
51   Pine resin   Pinus caribaea Morelet   Turpentine   Pinar del Río, Cuba   Ynocente Betancourt Figueras
52   Palm fibers   Carludovica palmata Ruiz & Pav.   Panama hats   Manabí, Ecuador   Rocío Alarcón Gallegos
53   Fruit   Pouteria sapota (Jacq.) H.E. Moore & Stearn   Food   Veracruz, Mexico   Martin Ricker
54   Fruit (allspice)   Pimenta dioica (L.) Merr.   Spice   Puebla, Mexico   Miguel-Angel Martínez-Alfaro
55   Leaves for fiber   Sabal yapa C. Wright ex Becc.   Roofing   Quintana Roo, Mexico   Javier Caballero
56   Tree bark   Trema micrantha (L.) Blume   Bark paper   Puebla, Mexico   Citlalli López
57   Wood   Bursera glabrifolia (Kunth) Engl.   Woodcarvings   Oaxaca, Mexico   Silvia E. Purata
58   Wood   Bursera aloexylon (Schiede ex Schltdl.) Engl.   Woodcarvings   Puebla, Mexico   Paul Hersch-Martínez
59   Bush meat   Tayassu tajacu and Tayassu pecari   Food   Maynas, Peru   Carlos Cornejo Arana
60   Fruit   Myrciaria dubia (Kunth) McVaugh   Food   Maynas, Peru   Mario Pinedo Panduro
61   Fruit   Uncaria tomentosa (Willd. ex Roem. & Schult.) DC.   Medicine   Puerto Inca, Peru   Walter Nalvarte


Address of Correspondent:
Brian Belcher
Center for International Forestry Research Jl. Situ Gede
Sindang Barang
Bogor 16680, Indonesia
Phone: +62-251-622 622
Fax: +62-251-622 100
b.belcher@cgiar.org



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